Humankind has an innate appetite for exploration, energy, and speed. These areas all require materials that operate in extreme environments, for example, temperatures above 1,500°C.

While exploring the universe can be cold (about –270°C in deep space), reentry into a planet’s atmosphere can be hot (about 1,500°C on Earth). Energy production through nuclear fission can reach temperatures of up to about 1,700°C and even higher for nuclear fusion, while nuclear thermal propulsion systems require temperatures up to about 2,800°C to provide thrust to propel next-generation spacecrafts to Mars and beyond. When traveling at hypersonic speeds on Earth, leading edges can reach temperatures of about 2,700°C at Mach 8.