AMERICAN CERAMIC SOCIETY bulletin emerging ceramics & glass technology MAY 2014 Touchscreen surface warfare Physics and chemistry of antimicrobial behavior of ion-exchanged silver in glass TiO, photocatalyst air purification • America Invents Act and impact on IP • Stress strengthening of glass fibers • www.ceramics.org/daytona2015 Call for Papers Abstracts Due July 16, 2014 39TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE AND EXPOSITION ON ADVANCED CERAMICS AND COMPOSITES January 25-30, 2015 | Hilton Daytona Beach Resort and Ocean Center | Daytona Beach Florida, USA The American Ceramic Society www.ceramics.org Engineering Ceramics Division The American Ceramic Society Organized by The American Ceramic Society and The American Ceramic Society\'s Engineering Ceramics Division contents feature articles May 2014 • Vol. 93 No. 4 Touchscreen surface warfare-Physics and chemistry of antimicrobial behavior of ion-exchanged silver in glass. . C. Kosik Williams, N.F. Borrelli, W. Senaratne, Y. Wei, and O. Petzold 20 Glass composition, silver concentration, and ambient conditions control antimicrobial efficacy on ion-exchanged glass surfaces and could reduce bacteria population on glass touchscreens. Passive purification-Effectiveness of photocatalytic titanium dioxide to convert pathogens and pollutants. . . . 25 Karen Welch Titanium dioxide has the potential to clean and disinfect under the right lighting conditions and environment. Reengineering US patent law with the America Invents Act. Steve Ritchey 31 The second article in a two-part series reviews patent law changes that began in 2011 with the signing of the America Invents Act and suggests best practices for complying with the law. Strength increase of silica glass fibers by surface stress relaxation: A new mechanical strengthening method Peter J. Lezzi and Minoru Tomozawa A new method for strengthening silica fibers is independent of thickness and composition. cover story Touchscreen surface warfarePhysics and chemistry of antimicrobial behavior of ion-exchanged silver in glass (Credit: Corning Inc.) - page 20 36 meetings DGG-ACerS GOMD 2014 Innovations in Biomedical Materials: Focus on Ceramics 5th Advances in Cement-based Materials 3rd International Conference on Electrospinning. Highlights from St. Louis/RCD and Ceramic Leadership Summit columns Deciphering the Discipline.. Sapna Gupta The exciting journey of an international graduate student. resources New Products Calendar Classified Advertising Display Advertising Index American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 40 41 44 46 48 56 56 feature article Passive purification-Effectiveness of photocatalytic titanium dioxide to convert pathogens and pollutants (Credit: Wikimedia Commons) - page 25 departments News & Trends 3 50 ACers Spotlight. 7 51 52 Ceramics in Energy 12 55 Advances in Nanomaterials 14 Ceramics in the Environment 16 Research Briefs.. 17 1 AMERICAN CERAMIC SOCIETY Obulletin Editorial and Production Eileen De Guire, Editor ph: 614-794-5828 fx: 614-794-5815 edeguire@ceramics.org April Gocha, Associate Editor Jessica McMathis, Associate Editor Russell Jordan, Contributing Editor contents May 2014 • Vol. 93 No. 4 Connect with ACers online! in g+ f http://bit.ly/acerstwitter http://bit.ly/acerslink http://bit.ly/acersgplus http://bit.ly/acersfb http://bit.ly/acersrss Tess Speakman, Graphic Designer Editorial Advisory Board Andrew Gyekenyesi, Chair, Ohio Aerospace Institute Finn Giuliani, Imperial College London G. 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Technical Publications & Meetings mmecklenborg@ceramics.org Officers David Green, President Kathleen Richardson, President-Elect Richard Brow, Past President Ted Day, Treasurer Charles Spahr, Executive Director Board of Directors Keith Bowman, Director 2012-2015 Elizabeth Dickey, Director 2012-2015 John Halloran, Director 2013-2016 Vijay Jain, Director 2011-2014 Edgar Lara-Curzio, Director 2013-2016 Tatsuki Ohji, Director 2013-2016 Ivar Reimanis, Director 2011-2014 Lora Cooper Rothen, Director 2011-2014 Mrityunjay (Jay) Singh, Director 2012-2015 David Johnson Jr., Parliamentarian Subscribe to our e-newsletter, Ceramic Tech Today, for the latest trends and news at http://bit.ly/acersctt. CERAMIC TECH TODAY ACerS Ceramic Materials, Applications & Business Blog March 18, 2014 From The editor of The American Ceramic Socity Bu Budget update: NSF presents 2015 request. unveils strategic plan The NSFsion to transm cance and engineering stimulate innovation and address societal nude Mosing those goals will both about $73 bon according to a new budget request Writ wit Congress have to say More register now! 4TH CERAMIC LEADERSHIP SUMMIT www.ceramica.org/r201 MORT Top Tweets Have you connected with @acersnews on Twitter? Here are some top posts: Wearable tech market to reach beyond wrists in 2014 If 2013 was the year of the \"selfie,\" then consider 2014 the year of wearable technology. http://bit.ly/acerswearabletech A recipe to manufacture success in manufacturing What makes a manufacturing company not only innovative, but also successful? http://bitly.com/acersrecipe Thank your microbiome-Gut microbes are behind chocolate\'s health benefits New research is helping to solidify dark chocolate\'s spot with the good guys. http://bit.ly/acerschocolate American Ceramic Society Bulletin covers news and activities of the Society and its members, includes items of interest to the ceramics community, and provides the most current information concerning all aspects of ceramic technology, including R&D, manufacturing, engineering, and marketing. American Ceramic Society Bulletin (ISSN No. 0002-7812). ©2014. Printed in the United States of America. ACerS Bulletin is published monthly, except for February, July, and November, a \"dual-media\" magazine in print and electronic formats (www.ceramicbulletin.org). Editorial and Subscription Offices: 600 North Cleveland Avenue, Suite 210, Westerville, OH 43082-6920. Subscription included with American Ceramic Society membership. Nonmember print subscription rates, including online access: United States and Canada, 1 year $95; international, 1 year $150.* Rates include shipping charges. International Remail Service is standard outside of the United States and Canada. *International nonmembers also may elect to receive an electronic-only, email delivery subscription for $75. Single issues, January-October/November: member $6.00 per issue; nonmember $7.50 per issue. December issue (ceramicSOURCE): member $20, nonmember $25. Postage/handling for single issues: United States and Canada, $3 per item; United States and Canada Expedited (UPS 2nd day air), $8 per item; International Standard, $6 per item. POSTMASTER: Please send address changes to American Ceramic Society Bulletin, 600 North Cleveland Avenue, Suite 210, Westerville, OH 43082-6920. Periodical postage paid at Westerville, Ohio, and additional mailing offices. Allow six weeks for address changes. ACSBA7, Vol. 93, No. 4, pp 1-56. All feature articles are covered in Current Contents. 2 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 news & trends Coca-Cola\'s \'Green\' initiatives might impact the glass-bottling industry Coca-Cola Co.-the world\'s largest and perhaps best-known beverage brand recently signed a $1.25-billion, 10-year deal with Green Mountain Coffee Roasters Inc. (Waterbury, Vt.), which produces Keurig\'s single-serve coffeemakers and a host of the system\'s K-Cups. As a result, Coca-Cola will exclusively partner with the coffee company in selling its drinks in plastic pods for Green Mountain\'s still-indevelopment KeurigCold system. The move signals a strategy shift for Coke and possible shifts for the beverage and glass-bottling industries as well. Although Coca-Cola Co. lays claim to the world\'s largest beverage distribution system (1.8 billion servings a day in more than 200 countries through more than 250 bottling partners), soda sales have slumped in recent years, in large part because of growing health concerns. And despite the company\'s vision to double revenues by 2020, in February, Coca-Cola posted a 1% sales volume decline in the United States and slower growth in emerging markets overseas. Green Mountain, on the other hand, posted a 12% increase. \"Our 2020 vision calls for decisive and timely action to continuously improve and evolve our global system to best serve our customers and consumers around the world,\" Coca-Cola chairman and CEO Muhtar Kent says in a press release. \"This agreement demonstrates our creative approach to partnerships and ability to identify and stay at the forefront of consumer trends driving the industry.\" One of those trends is the continued search for environmentally friendly bottling options for beverages that once were exclusively packaged in glass, plastic, and aluminum. According to the company\'s 6 Coca-Cola Coca-Cola 2012-2013 Global Reporting Initiative report, only 12% of the Coke packaged globally was in glass (10% refillable glass, 2% \"one-way\" glass). More than half-55%-was sold in poly (ethylene terephthalate) plastic, which is \"lighter in weight, shatterresistant, resealable, and easily recyclable.\" The “ultra-glass Contour Bottle” introduced in 2000 was designed for \"improved impact resistance, reduced weight, and cost”and to be 40% stronger and 20% lighter and saved close to 52,000 tons of glass in 2006. Coca-Cola\'s new PlantBottle, made of up to 30% renewable plantbased material, seeks to make its packaging even more sustainable. Coca-Cola CoCoca-Co How might Coca-Cola sold in plastic pods and other environmental footprint-reducing initiatives affect the glass-bottling industry? Plastics and other biodegradable packaging might generate headlines, but glass still remains an important economic driver in the US and overseas. According to the Glass Packaging Institute, glass-container companies are part of a $5.5-billion industry that employs 18,000 skilled workers in 49 plants throughout 22 states. The European Union is the world\'s largest glass producer, says the European Container Glass Federation, manufacturing more than 20 million tons of it each year. In addition to the size and impact of the industry, health concerns also seem to favor packaging soda-and many other edibles in glass instead of plastic. Concerns about the chemicals in plastic, particularly the much-publicized bisphenol A (BPA), leaching out of the container and into the consumable have prompted many consumers to favor more inert packaging, like glass. Coke and its bottling partners recognize glass\'s continued relevance across the globe and they have not yet given up efforts to lightweight the iconic contoured bottle, thereby reducing its environmental impact. Just after the Green Mountain announcement, Ardagh United Kingdom (a division of Ardagh Group, Luxembourg) revealed that its own lightweighting project had resulted in the manufacture of a 330-mL CocaCola bottle below the 200-g level for the first time. According to an Ardagh release, the company\'s 190-g version \"has been able to retain all the bottle\'s trademark dimensions, and maintain quality and strength while improving environmental performance.\" \"Our task is keep the brand shape, whilst determining the stress points and the optimum weight of a glass bottle,\" Ardagh European glass design manager Carsten Berkau says in the release. \"State-of-the-art technology ensures that when we are challenged, we can respond with even greater precision.\" American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 3 Onews & trends Google VP says science, engineering advances vital to global energy challenges Arun Majumdar, shown here at the TEDx MidAtlantic 2011 conference, believes advances in science and engineering are vital to meet global energy challenges. One of Google\'s top officials believes many of the solutions to the world\'s energy challenges lie in the work being done in science and engineering communities. In speaking to a packed house at an Oak Ridge National Laboratory Distinguished Lecture, Arun Majumdar, Google\'s vice president of energy, discussed the challenges that will result as the world\'s population continues to expand in regions where the ability to produce affordable and reliable energy is limited or nonexistent. “I really think we should think globally as to how to get economic development in regions that don\'t have access to energy the way we do,\" Majumdar says in an ORNL news release. \"Maybe the solutions are not the ones we use. Maybe they don\'t need a 300-horsepower car, but how to get access to affordable electricity and fuel. It is an opportunity to try a better way.\" According to Majumdar, national laboratories like ORNL-which are tasked with creating real, long-term solutions to equally real, long-term challenges play a critical part in finding that better way. \"The national labs also have this cadre of scientists and engineers who—if they are directed in the right way to solve some of these prob4 (Credit: The Q; Flickr.) lems could be hugely helpful to our industry, our business, and to [United States] competitiveness,\" he says. Majumdar is a materials scientist and former head of the Environmental Energy Technologies Division at Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory. Concrete-sleeved caissons shore up new NYC skyscrapers New York City\'s iconic skyline soon will morph with the addition of mixed-use skyscrapers—the largest private real-estate development in United States history-that \"barely touch the ground.\" Wired reports that the Hudson Yards development—a planned $20-billion, 17-million-square-foot multiuse space that has been described as \"Jenga-esque\"-is being built without footings or foundations. Instead, Hudson\'s six skyscrapers, 100 shops, 20 restaurants, school, and 14 acres of parks will “sit atop 300 concretesleeved, steel caissons jammed deep into the underlying bedrock.\" The steel supports (similar to those used in construction of the Brooklyn Bridge) will allow the superstructures to float above West Side Yard-an existing and active train yard that provides overflow during rush hour—on a 37,000-ton platform. Completing the platform\'s construction with trains whizzing about requires coordination and 250 carefully placed concrete-encased caissons drilled 40 to 80 feet into the earth below. \"The total punishment is somewhere in the neighborhood of 35,000 tons of steel and 50,000 cubic yards of concrete,\" says lead platform engineer Jim White in the article. \"We look at the area of the yard and model in the train traffic, when it moves on an hourly basis, and actually design the connections so we can install these 100-footlong trusses when we have a window of opportunity.\" Bloomberg News reports that a large A planned $20-billion Manhattan development relies on concrete-encased caissons to shore up six new skyscrapers and more than 17-million square feet of mixed-use space. part of the work will be completed on weekends with 52 hours of \"continuous shift work\" that will drastically reduce the need to close tracks. Engineers anticipate that construction of the platform will be completed in two and a half years, and Related Companies, one of Hudson Yard\'s developers, expects the entire project to wrap up by 2024. NSF-supported center to partner with industry in advancing, expanding materials research The National Science Foundation is providing close to a million dollars over the next five years to create a new Center for Dielectrics and Piezoelectrics (CDP), which will be colocated at Pennsylvania State University and North Carolina State University. The CDP will receive $830,000 from NSF, along with funding from outside organizations, to establish an www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 (Credit: Related Companies.) (Credit: Penn State; Flickr.) NSF Industry/University Cooperative Research Center that \"builds on and expands\" the research capabilities available at Penn State\'s Center for Dielectrics Studies (CDS), according to the news release from the Materials Research Institute at Penn State. \"The timing was right to build for a longer-term future by establishing many new partnerships and leveraging old partnerships that are undergoing change themselves,\" says Clive Randall, director of CDS and co-director of the new center. The joint collaboration between the two universities seeks to \"develop an international leadership position and train next-generation scientists in the fundamental material science and engineering that underpins dielectric and piezoelectric materials.\" It also will develop new materials, strategies, and testing to support industry. \"Broadly speaking, our goal is to work with industry to address outstanding research questions and contribute to the fundamental knowledge that leads to innovative technologies and products,\" says Elizabeth Dickey, codirector of the center and professor of materials science and engineering at NC State, in an NC State blog post. \"The center has 18 inaugural industry partners, and we\'re working with them to identify areas where their needs and our interdisciplinary expertise overlap to develop a research portfolio,\" Dickey says. \"This sort of dialogue and planning helps us determine our research priorities.\" In regards to NSF\'s research priorities, acting director Cora Marrett recently presented NSF\'s $7.3-billion budget request to Congress. According to an NSF news release, the spending plan—which represents a roughly 1% increase over 2014 appropriations \"supports investments in fundamental research across all scientific disciplines, engineering, and education that continue to enhance our national economy, security, and quality of life.\" The Millennium Science Complex will serve as the Pennsylvania State University \"node\" of the new Center for Dielectrics and Piezoelectrics, which is supported by NSF. Experts Customized Sankey diagrams visually highlight heat inputs and losses in dryers and kilns. Dryer SANKEY DIAGRAM DENT A USEABLE HEAT Technical consulting on product quality and process energy conservation is a priority service at Harrop. Each year, dozens of clients engage us for in-plant training, technical analysis and unbiased advice on best practices for their kiln and dryer operations. 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HARROP Fire our imagination www.harropusa.com American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 5 Onews & trends Volvo tests magnets to guide driverless cars Volvo Car Group recently announced in a press release that it has completed a project researching the feasibility of road-integrated magnets, which are “a potential key to the implementation of self-driving vehicles.\" \"The magnets create an invisible \'railway\' that literally paves the for a positioning inaccuracy of less than one decimeter,\" says Jonas Ekmark, a preventive safety leader at Volvo. \"We have tested the technology at a variety of speeds, and the results so far are promising.\" way For the test, Volvo equipped a 100-m-long track with round 40-mmdiatmeter by 15-mm-thick ferrite magnets, 200 mm beneath the road, which the car detected with magnetic field sensors to determine road positioning. Although Volvo is short on the details, the tests must have gone well. \"Our experience so far is that ferrite magnets are an efficient, reliable, and relatively cheap solution, both when it comes to the infrastructure and onboard sensor technology. The next step 0000000 Volvo recently completed a research project to examine the feasibility of using roadequipped ferrite magnets, as indicated in the schematic above, to drive autonomous cars. is to conduct tests in real-life traffic,\" explains Ekmark. \"It is fully possible to implement autonomous vehicles without changes to the present infrastructure,\" he adds in the press release. \"However, this technology adds interesting possibilities, such as complementing road markings with magnets.\" California seems to be thinking about these possibilities already, because the Department of Motor Vehicles currently is writing rules to regulate autonomous vehicles before 2014 closes. Although other states already have laws governing the testing of driverless cars, California is extending its regulations to public operation as well. Google already has driverless cars that have traversed \"hundreds of thousands of miles in California,\" according to the Associated Press, so California may not be looking that far into the crystal ball. Japan to restart nuclear program, China on track to beat 2020 targets Japan which, after the disaster at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant, vowed to shut down all of its plants by 2030 is gearing up to reinvigorate its nuclear program, reports MIT Technology Review. Once a \"nuclear powerhouse,\" Japan and its 54 reactors produced 31% of the country\'s electricity before the meltdown and natural disasters forced officials to nix their nuclear energy agenda. But with little to no fossil fuel resources of its own (Japan is second only to China in terms of imports) and because of the growing expense of energy generation, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe recently announced that any plants \"deemed safe by regulators\" would be back in operation as soon as summer. Restarting a nuclear program that was shut down less than five years ago may seem like a fairly simple process, but it is certainly neither a cheap nor fast-moving one. With a $1-billion-per-reactor price tag and heightened safety regulations to scale, the World Nuclear Association reports that it could take Japan years to earn regulatory clearance for all 48 reactors. Japan, which vowed to shut down all of its plants by 2030, is gearing up to restart its reactors. Meanwhile, Sun Qin, chairman of China National Nuclear Corp., announced that China is \"back on track with projects that had been halted after Japan\'s Fukushima disaster,\" and is set to beat its 2020 nuclear program targets. And although China\'s 17 nuclear reactors produce less than 2% of its electricity, according to Reuters, the country may build more than 20 new reactors in the next six years. That is in addition to the 31 units already under construction. Credit: Volvo Car Group.) (Credit: IAEA; Flickr.) 6 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 Oacers spotlight Welcome to our newest Corporate Members! ACerS recognizes organizations that I have joined the Society as Corporate Members. For more information on becoming a Corporate Member, contact Tricia Freshour at tfreshour@ ceramics.org or visit ACerS special Corporate Member web page, www.ceramics.org/corporate. C-THERM C-Therm Technologies Ltd. Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada www.ctherm.com PPT Powder Processing and Technology LLC Valparaiso, Ind., USA www.pptechnology.com Robocasting Enterprises LLC Robocasting Enterprises LLC Albuquerque, N.M., USA www.robocasting.net Student contests at MS&T\'14 Students: Don\'t miss the Material Advantage contests at the Materials Science & Technology Conference, October 12-16 in Pittsburgh, Pa., which include: • Undergraduate Student Poster • Undergraduate Student Speaking • Graduate Student Poster • Ceramic Mug Drop • Ceramic Disc Golf For more information, contact Tricia Freshour at tfreshour@ceramics.org. In Memoriam Addison Maupin Robert R. Sinclair Sr. Nominations open for ECD Mueller, Bridge Building, and Global Young Investigator Awards The Engineering Ceramics Division invites nominations for the James I. Mueller, Bridge Building, and Global Young Investigator awards for 2015. The deadline for submitting nominations for all three awards is July 1, 2014. Λ DELTECH, INC. The Mueller Award recognizes individuals for long-term service to ECD and work in the area of engineering ceramics that has resulted in significant industrial, national, or academic impact. The recipient will receive a WE BUILD THE FURNACE TO FIT YOUR NEED® 陌生 American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org Sustained Operating Temperatures up to 2000°C www.deltechfurnaces.com 7 Some detailed obituaries also can be found on the ACerS website, www. ceramics.org/in-memoriam. acers spotlight memorial plaque, certificate, and honorarium of $1,000. For more information, visit www.ceramics.org/awards or contact Sujanto Widjaja at widjajas@ corning.com. The Bridge Building Award recognizes individuals outside of the United States who have made outstanding contributions to engineering ceramics. Recipients selected for contributions to the field of engineering ceramics or to the visibility of the field and international advocacy-will receive a glass piece, certificate, and honorarium of $1,000. For more information, visit www.ceramics.org/awards or contact Mike Halbig at michael.c.halbig@nasa.gov. The Global Young Investigator Award recognizes an outstanding scientist who is conducting research in academia, in industry, or at a governmentfunded laboratory. Candidates must be ACerS members and 35 years of age or younger. Selection of the awardee will be based on the nomination and accompanying evidence of scientific contributions and visibility of the field, and advocacy of the global young investigator and professional scientific forum. The recipient will receive a glass piece, $1,000 and a certificate. For more information, visit www.ceramics. org/awards or contact Soshu Kirihara at kirihara@jwri.osaka-u.ac.jp. 8 CERAMIC TECH TODAY Manufacturing process improvements and magnetic refrigeration technologies are just a few of the stories we are covering at ceramics.org/ ceramictechtoday. Daily updates on breaking news and more, including: Photo recap from RCD ·Proposed 2015 federal budget for R&D - Stained-glass solar cells - Glass brain\'s big debut ceramics.org/ceramictechtoday ACerS and GOMD announces 2014 lecture awards ACerS and the Glass and Optical Materials Division will honor its 2014 award recipients during the opening ceremony of the 1st Joint Meeting of DGG-ACerS GOMD, May 25–30 in Aachen, Germany. For more information on the meeting, see page 40. Micoulaut Darshana and Arun Varshneyna Frontiers of Glass Science Lecture Thursday, May 29, 10:20 a.m. Matthieu Micoulaut, professor of physics, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, France, Reversibility in glasses. Given its \"off-equilibrium” nature, the liquid to glass transition is, at its essence, a kinetic phenomenon. Micoulaut will review the notion of reversibility in glasses and present molecular dynamics simulations that demonstrate the miniscule thermodynamic changes exhibited by certain glass-forming liquids during cooling and heating cycles. A professor at the university where he earned his PhD in 1993, Micoulaut focuses his research on basic aspects including the theory of disordered solids, oxide and chalcogenide glasses, phase change materials, and glass transition. He also has studied granular media and out-of-equilibrium processes that have found industrial applications in mechanical engineering, surface treatment, and fatigue life improvement. Actively involved in the characterization of new glassy stress-free phases with unusual physical properties, Micoulaut received the 2009 Stanford Ovshinsky Prize Award for Excellence in Amorphous Chalcogenides and was named a Fulbright Fellow in 2013. Darshana and Arun Varshneyna Frontiers of Glass Technology Lecture Thursday, May 29, 3:40 p.m. TJ Kiczenski, research associate in the Glass Research Group, Corning Kiczenski Incorporated, Advancing the understanding and utilization of glass relaxation in commercial applications. The glass industry long has relied on a detailed understanding of glass relaxation to produce a wide range of products, from tempered glass and glass-ceramics, to controlling dimensional stability in thin-film transistor manufacturing processes. Kiczenski will describe some recent research into glass relaxation-specifically regarding room-temperature relaxation in alkali aluminosilicate glasses and how these new findings can be incorporated directly into new product design. Kiczenski is an expert on the design of fusion-formable glass compositions as well as compaction and relaxation phenomena. His work includes investigations of the physics of glass relaxation, liquidus relationships in multicomponent glass-forming systems, metallic glasses, and glass-glass and glass-ceramic composites. He has invented or coinvented several Corning high-performance display products, including Jade, Lotus, and LotusXT. He earned his PhD in geology and MS in materials science from Stanford University. Stookey Lecture of Discovery Hayden with laser glass. Wednesday, May 28, 3:40 p.m. Joseph S. Hayden, research fellow, Schott North America Inc., Overcoming technical challenges and moving into the future The long-term commercial potential for solid-state laser gain materials based on glass has been possible only by constant technological developments that have overcome performance and cost issues that would otherwise www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 be considered \"market lethal.\" Hayden will highlight examples of developments that resulted in completely new manufacturing processes and expanded the laser glass operation window. He will discuss current research activity directed at finding customized laser glass compositions for the next generation of highpeak power laser systems. After earning a BS in physics from Saint Joseph\'s University and a PhD in chemical physics from Brown University, Hayden joined the Schott Group in 1985, where he worked in glass composition and process development with an emphasis on laser, nonlinear, and technical glasses. He is currently a research fellow at Schott\'s Research and Technology Development site in Duryea, Pa. George W. Morey Award Elliott Tuesday, May 27, 3:40 p.m. Stephen R. Elliott, professor of chemical physics, Cambridge University, UK, Chalcogenide phasechange materials: past and future. Phase-change nonvolatile memory materials (PCM), such as Ge₂SbTe (GST), store digital binary data as structural changes in the material. Elliott will discuss the effects of doping GST with elements, such as nitrogen or first-row transition metals, in order to improve phase-change characteristics. He also will discuss very recent work that demonstrates that GST phase-change cells also can perform Boolean logic operations, thereby combining memory and processing operations in the same cell. A fellow of Trinity College, UK, Elliott has published more than 340 papers in the areas of structure and modeling of amorphous solids, vibrational states of disordered solids, electronic structure of glasses, amorphous chalcogenides, and phase-change materials. He is the author or coauthor of three widely used textbooks and has received numerous awards for his work, including the Zachariasen Prize in 1992. He is the first-ever recipient of the Stanford R. Ovshinsky Award for excellence in noncrystalline chalcogenides. His current research focuses on the field of PCMs, examining the microscopic origins of the fast amorphous-crystalline phase transitions, and the design of new PCMs for in-memory logic and neuromorphic computing. Steel Norbert J. Kreidl Award Wednesday, May 28, 10:20 a.m. Peter J. Lezzi, PhD student, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Strength increase of silica glass fibers by surface stress relaxation: A new mechanical strengthening method. Pristine silica glass fiber-known to become mechanically weaker when heattreated in the presence of water vapor— mo.sci CORPORATION Interconnect Glass Seal ← Cathode ← YSZ Electrolyte <Anode Sealing Glass Glass YSZ / NiO Excellent wetting and bonding to both metal and ceramics Glass is homogeneous, with no crystals and no significant elements from metal or ceramics diffusing into glass The innovative staff at Mo-Sci will work with you to design and develop your project. Mo-Sci is ISO 9001:2008 and AS9100C certified. mo mo.sci CARE mo.sci SPECIALTY PRODUCTS www.mo-sci.com • 573.364.2338 mo-sci PRECISION MATERIALS American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 9 acers spotlight Lezzi has been found to if become stronger heat-treated while held below a subcritical tensile stress at a temperature below the glass transition temperature. The added strength is attributed to the formation of a surface compressive layer created by a surface stress relaxation process that occurrs while under the tensile stress. Lezzi will discuss how this new method-which is not subject to the constraints of other strengthening processes-can, in principle, be used for any oxide glass. See p. 36 for an extended abstract. Lezzi is a PhD student under the guidance of Minoru Tomozawa at Young Professionals Network promotes exchange of ideas, leadership development Gorzkowski III Reigel By Edward P. Gorzkowski III 2013-14 YPN co-chair Marissa Reigel 2014-15 YPN co-chair ACers strongly encourages young professional involvement and has done so through actively supporting new awards, sponsoring gatherings, and increasing the visibility of the Society\'s young professionals. The Society\'s Young Professionals Network (YPN), which is composed of more than 160 ACerS members in the first 10 years of their career, represents a cross section of research, academia, and industry from all over the world. YPN members work together by volunteering in one of four main areas-programming, recruitment, communications, and student and outreach efforts to promote the exchange of ideas and to network among peers and leaders in the field of ceramics and glass. January was a busy month for our group. During EMA\'14 in Orlando, more than 50 people attended YPN\'s networking reception with Society leaders and students. At the Daytona Beach ICACC meeting, more than 40 young professionals and students participated in oral presentations through 10 the Global Young Investigator\'s Forum (GYIF). Together, GYIF and YPN hosted a networking reception attended by more than 85 people. is In April, we sponsored the Future Leaders Program at the 4th Ceramic Leadership Summit. The program designed to help nominated young professionals with high potential gain a fuller understanding of their leadership abilities, including their strengths and development areas as applied to the materials science world. The program continues to grow. More than 30 young professionals participated in the event and will be recognized at a later date as developing leaders both in their field and in the Society. YPN also participated with members from the President\'s Council of Student Advisors in the USA Science & Engineering Festival, held April 25-27 in Washington, D.C., doing ceramics, glass, and materials demonstrations and talking about the importance of these materials in our lives. Coming up, we are planning networking and social events at MS&T\'14, October 12-16, so be sure to plan to join us in Pittsburgh. Get involved in the YPN and in one of our committees now. Volunteering is a great way to make connections to others in academia and industry. For more information or to volunteer, email Ed Gorzkowski at Edward.Gorzkowski@nrl.navy.mil, Marissa Reigel at marissa.reigel@ srnl.doe.gov, or Megan Bricker at mbricker@ceramics.org. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. His research interests in the area of glass science include stress relaxation, water diffusion, mechanical strength, and the mixed alkali effect. Lezzi received a graduate fellowship from Corning\'s Fundamental Research department and the GOMD 2011 Alfred R. Cooper Scholars Award. Students earn travel scholarships for DGG-ACerS GOMD Students and a few postdoctoral researchers travelling to the DGG-ACerS GOMD meeting in Aachen, Germany have benefitted from three sources of travel and registration assistance. Thanks to the generous sponsorships of Mo-Sci Corporation, the ACerS Glass and Optical Materials Division, and the International Materials Institute for New Functionality in Glass (IMI-NFG), more than 40 fortunate individuals will have a substantial portion of their expenses covered. Mo-Sci, an ACerS Corporate Member headquartered in Rolla, Mo., generously donated $20,000 to students attending the meeting; GOMD used division funds, which they had saved for several years, to provide travel support to students and post-docs who applied for the funds; and IMI-NFG at Lehigh University awarded travel scholarships to 16 university-level students to attend the international meeting. For more information on the meeting, see page 40. Outreach kits make materials science accessible to students Members who participate in STEM outreach activities will want to check out the new materials science and engineering (MSE) outreach kits developed by ACerS\' President\'s Council of Student Advisors (PCSA). These new resources-along with the 13 comprehensive and interactive lessons available online at ceramics.org at no charge are designed for teaching a broad range of MSE concepts to stuwww.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 Furnaces & Ovens dents grades 7 through 12. Ten of these lessons are grouped into two different kits and include most of the materials necessary for classroom implementation. They are available for purchase at for $80 per kit. International shipping charges are additional and are available upon request. Corporate and industry representatives: These kits offer a unique opportunity to promote materials science in your area and connect students with the ceramics industry. For information on sponsorship, contact Tricia Freshour at tfreshour@ceramics.org or visit www.ceramics.org/pcsasciencekits. Early-bird registration for Pittsburgh Section\'s annual golf outing ends September 1 ACers\' Pittsburgh Section will host its annual golf outing on Monday, September 8, 2014, at The Links at Spring Church, in Apollo, Pa. Registration for the four-person scramble begins at 10 a.m., with shot-gun start at 11:30 a.m. Enjoy a complete program of 18 holes of golf (including cart), hot dog snack, dinner, refreshments, various awards, and prizes. The early-bird registration and prepay deadline is September 1. Cost is $90 per player and hole sponsorships are available for $85. To register, visit www.ceramics.org/sections/pittsburgh-section. For additional information or to donate prizes, contact Bill Harasty at bharasty@swindelldressler.com, or Jim Gilson at jgilson@swindelldressler.com or 412-788-7100. Names in the News Ballato named vice president at Clemson University Clemson University has named John Ballato, professor of materials science and engineering and director of the Center for Optical Materials Science and Engineering Technologies, its new vice president for economic development. A Fellow of the Society, Ballato, who also serves as academic director of the Clemson University Restoration Institute, previously served as the university\'s interim vice president for research, associate vice president for research and economic development, and faculty representative to the board of trustees. Ballato Guillon heads Jülich\'s materials experts Olivier Guillon is the new head of the Institute of Energy and Climate Research - Materials Synthesis Guillon and Processing (IEK-1) at Forschungszentrum Jülich, Germany. The recipient of ACerS\' 2011 Robert L. Coble Award, Guillon is a professor of materials synthesis for energy technologies at RWTH Aachen University and head of the Field Assisted Sintering Technique/Spark Plasma Sintering expert group. CARBOLITE Leading Heat Technology part of VERDER, scientific American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org If you are looking for a complete line of furnaces & ovens for heat treatment, look no further than CARBOLITE. Temperature range from 20°C to 1,800°C Chamber, tube and application specific furnaces Customized solutions and modifications www.carbolite.com Oceramics in energy GE announces new magnetic refrigerator technology GE Appliances recently announced that it is focusing research on magnetic refrigeration for the next generation of refrigerators, which will be more environmentally friendly and energy efficient. According to a Business Wire press release, GE\'s \"technology uses no refrigerants or compressors and is 20 percent more efficient than what is used today. In addition, the technology can be applied to other heat pump applications such as HVAC and has the potential to impact nearly 60 percent of the average [United States] household\'s energy consumption.\" As GE Director of Technologies Venkat Venkatakrishnan explains in the release, \"We figured out how to create heat or cold without a compressor or chemical refrigerants. This breakthrough can power your fridge with greater efficiency, and, because the technology does not contain traditional refrigerants, recycling refrigerators at end of life will be easier and less costly. GE is leading the development of the next refrigeration revolution.\" Sans refrigerants, the system uses water-based fluids containing magnetocaloric materials that are pumped through a series of rotating magnets. According to phys.org, the system currently uses nickel-manganese alloys, but GE researchers are working to develop new alloys as well. The concept I sounds simple, but getting a refrigerator to work well without a compressor is no simple task. GE researchers have been working on slimming down the system for several years and more work remains before the system is whittled down to a compact refrigerator-sized component. However, GE says they are on track to offer residential magnetocaloric refrigerators in the next five years. Besides the GE Appliances group, researchers from GE Global Research and Oak Ridge National Laboratory are working on the technology. 12 35-1484 GE Appliance\'s Michael Benedict (left) and Venkat Venkatakrishnan (right) test magnetic refrigeration for the next generation of appliances. Researchers from the University of Michigan have developed aestheticallypleasing solar cells. Will \'stained glass\' solar cells light the future? Researchers from the University of Michigan have a new idea for solar cells make them pretty. Led by Jay Guo, professor of electrical engineering and computer science, mechanical engineering, and macromolecular science and engineering, the scientists have created thin semitransparent solar cells that can be fabricated with an array of colors and designs. \"I think this offers a very different way of utilizing solar technology rather than concentrating it in a small area,\" Guo says in a University of Michigan press release. \"Today, solar panels are black, and the only place you can put them on a building is the rooftop. And the rooftop of a typical high-rise is so tiny.\" A paper recently published in Scientific Reports details how the scientists created their new solar cells with a thin sheet of amorphous silicon sandwiched between semitransparent electrodes, one of which is made from an organic material. The organic-inorganic hybrid design allowed fabrication of cells 10 times thinner than traditional amorphous silicon solar cells, according to the press release. With the freedom of thin, semitransparent cells, the scientists then www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 (Credit: Joseph Xu; U. of Michigan Engineering.) added the aesthetics—they fabricated designs on the cells with reflective layers. “To get different colors, they varied the thickness of the semiconductor layer of amorphous silicon in the cells,\" states the press release. says in The cells achieved just 2% efficiency, in comparison to the ~10% achieved in standard organic solar cells. But Guo the press release that a square-meter panel still generates enough electricity to light a fluorescent bulb or small electronics. And the increase in potential surface applications means that sheer surface area can make up for lower efficiency. The paper is \"Decorative power generating panels creating angle insensitive transmissive colors” (DOI: 10.1038/srep04192). | Antireflective solar coating is modeled after moth eyes With calls for cleaner and greener energy and a growing reliance on solar power, self-cleaning antireflective coatings that capture more light are necessary for efficient solar cells. Researchers at the University of Cambridge\'s A new self-cleaning, antireflective coatCavendish Laboratory ing mimics the structure of moth eyes. have developed a self-cleaning thin coating that mimics the hexagonal structure of moth eyes, which are covered with a nanostructured film that is naturally antireflective. According to a university press release, the problem with most synthetic moth eye coatings lies in the fact that “the tiny spaces which make the coating antireflective in the first place can very quickly become clogged with dirt, which cause the antireflective effect to be lost.\" Professor Ulli Steiner and team\'s coating has larger pores that combat clogging and are created from titanium dioxide nanocrystals. Because of the photocatalytic nature of these nanocrystals, light breaks down dirt into basic components-carbon dioxide and water, which eventually evaporate. Their testing has shown that oils contained in a fingerprint could be broken down in 90 minutes. Additional testing will determine whether the material-which, because it relies on ultraviolet light for photocatalysis, is “currently only suitable for outdoor applications\"-could be adapted for the indoors or find application in building glass and solar cells. \"When generating energy from solar cells, you have to fight for every percentage gain in efficiency,” says Steiner. “The coating we\'ve developed combines two interesting scientific principles, and could increase the amount of light getting into the solar cells.\" The paper, published in Nano Letters, is “Self-cleaning antireflective optical coatings” (DOI: 10.1021/nl402832u). (Credit: sootyskye; Flickr.) MIN-U-SIL® AND SIL-CO-SIL® GROUND SILICA When you buy world-class MIN-U-SIL® and SIL-CO-SIL® Ground Silica from U.S. Silica, you can be sure the service you receive is world-class. U.S. Silica delivers the \"Total Package\" every time: Products tailored to your needs Convenient packaging choices including bulk and 50, 1000, and 2000# bags Five convenient mining and processing locations A dedicated and experienced service team Products produced to the highest standards CALL US TODAY FOR A FREE SAMPLE! 800-345-6170 www.ussilica.com sales@ussilica.com US SILICA American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 13 ●advances in nanomaterials (Credit: Gu and Linley; U. of Waterloo.) Water treatment photocatalysis by nano titania, magnetite, and graphene oxide modules Since scientists have taken notice of the increasing amounts of caffeine detectable in water supplies, water treatment processes for removing caffeine and other contaminants have become a lively area of research for water chemists and hydrologists. A 2012 National Geographic article explains that caffeine alone is not the problem it is what increased levels of caffeine signify. The article quotes Iowa-based United States Geological Survey hyrdrologist Dana Kolpin: \"Caffeine is pretty darn ubiquitous, and there is growing evidence that this and other understudied contaminants are out there. There is a whole universe of potential contaminants including pharmaceuticals, hormones, personal care products like detergents or fragrances, even artificial sweeteners.\' \" One water treatment approach that is getting a close look is photocatalysis to break down harmful chemical compounds into benign or less harmful components. Titania\'s wide bandgap semiconducting properties make it attractive as a photocatalytic agent, and it has been shown to effectively break down organic compounds. Using a nanoscale form of titania provides essentially 100% active surface. A photocatalyst should be recoverable and reusable for two reasons-efficiency and safety. Using recycled photocatalyst increases cost-effectiveness, and removing nanoscale photocatalysts avoids creating a potential new problem with nanoparticles in treated water. A new paper in Applied Materials and Interfaces addresses the issue of recyclability, which involves two challenges: recovering the photocatalyst and treating it with ultraviolet light to \"reset\" its photocatalytic ability. Clever engineering of ceramic materials allowed the authors to address these challenges. The research led by assistant group, professor Frank Gu at the UniverFe₂0₁₂ + TiO₂ Sio₂Graphene oxide Nanocomposite magnetite-silica and titania nanoparticles loaded on graphene oxide to make a recyclable wastewater treatment system. sity of Waterloo (Canada), loaded a combination of photocatalytic titania nanoparticles and composite magnetic nanoparticles onto graphene oxide (GO) supports to create photocatalytic “modules.\" The magnetic nanoparticles are a core-shell structure of magnetite (Fe3O4) surrounded by silica. Adjusting the amount of titania loaded onto the GO meshes which also are nanoscale, -allowed the team to tune photocatalytic efficacy. Simultaneously loading magnetic nanocomposites onto the GO meshes allowed the team to recover the particle-loaded meshes by exposing the system to a magnetic field. They tested the system on caffeine and carbamazepine (also a pharmaceutical compound). After testing a few composition ratios, the group found an optimized ratio that performed 1.2 times more effectively than commercial photocatalysts and broke down both organic compounds within 60 minutes. The modules also are fully recoverable. Photocatalytic activity of the titania can be completely restored by exposing the modules to ultraviolet radiation for 16 hours to remove adsorbed organic contaminants from the surface of the particles. The paper goes into detail about the synthesis of the magnetic nanocomposites and the chemistry of the photocatalysis, adding that module synthesis should be easily scalable to industrial levels. The authors conclude, “Efficacy on relevant contaminants combined with simple separation after treatment and an efficient, easily controllable modular synthesis technique give the nanocomposite exceptional potential for industrial application of advance water treatment.\' \" The paper is \"Recyclable graphene oxide-supported titanium dioxide photocatalysts with tunable properties,\" (DOI: 10.1021/am4039272). Ceramic thermal barrier coating lasts three-times longer When it comes to jet engine efficiency, hotter is better. But to survive the scorch, engines need a high-performing thermal barrier coating to protect them from the stresses of intense temperature changes. Scientists at Sweden\'s University West report that they have developed a superior ceramic nanoparticle thermal barrier coating for jet engines that also can increase engine life by 300%. The research is the doctoral work of Nicholas Curry, who says the new coating is the standard ceramic yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ) containing ~7 wt% yttria. But in an email, Curry says the difference is \"mainly a structural effect that provides such good properties and stability.\" \"A conventional surface layer looks like a sandwich, with layer upon layer,\" Curry further explains in a University West press release. \"The surface layer we produce with the new method can be compared more to standing columns. This makes the layer more flexible and easier to monitor. And it adheres to the 14 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 Suspension plasma spraying to coat jet engines with a new, more stable thermal barrier coating. metal, regardless of whether the surface is completely smooth or not. The most important thing is not the material itself, but how porous it is.\" Porosity allows the coating to expand and contract, providing elasticity and strength to withstand contraction/expansion cycles from the engine\'s vast temperature changes. The scientists applied the 0.5-mmthick YSZ nanoparticle layer to engine surfaces using suspension plasma spray. Curry says they tested the ceramic layer thousands of times in thermal shock tests to make sure that it can withstand engine in-service temperature changes. The coating survived, and it outperformed more conventional coatings in (Credit: University West.) durability by a factor of three. Curry confirmed by email that his team is advancing their development forward. \"There are a couple of projects on this topic at the moment running within our research group...though I am unable to go into specific details,\" he says. \"The purpose now is to move towards testing on engine components once the industrial partners are satisfied that the whole process is stable and repeatable. I hope that this will proceed within the next 12-18 months. Future work will be also to further refine the process by understanding better the deposition process and further tailoring of the ceramic suspension used as feedstock.\" The research was \"conducted in close collaboration” with GKN Aerospace (formerly Volvo Aero) and Siemens Industrial Turbomachinery, according to the press release. 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CM FURNACES INC. 103 Dewey Street Bloomfield, NJ 07003-4237 Tel: 973-338-6500 Fax: 973-338-1625 American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 15 Oceramics in the environment Rethinking cement clinker-Progress and perspectives in alkaliactivated materials Concrete aggregate bound t-has been together with cement— the \"go to\" building material since ancient times, and all signs indicate that is not about to change anytime soon. But research into alternative, low-carbon cements and alternatives to portland cement comprise a lively, active field of inquiry. Developing low-clinker-content cements is a key focus, according to a report from the European Cement Association. Researchers Susan A. Bernal and John L. Provis, from Sheffield University in the United Kingdom, recently reported findings on their work developing clinker-free cements for concrete in the Journal of the American Ceramic Society. They call these compounds “alkali-activated materials (AAM).\" However, these compounds have been known by many other names, perhaps most famously as \"geopolymers.\" Any substitute for portland cement must be producible throughout the world from a wide range of starting materials. Also, the material properties must be comparable in the fresh state so that the concrete can be worked with existing tools and skill sets and in the hardened state. AAMS result from a reaction between an alkali source and a pozzolanic aluminosilicate precursor, such as blast-furnace slag, fly ash, or calcined kaolinite minerals. The precursors contain reactive aluminum and silicon, which dissolve under the right alkaline conditions to form a cementlike binder and then rearrange through solution to form a strong dense binding gel. The authors are careful to note that an all-purpose substitute for portland cement is unlikely. Thus, the chemical and physical properties, that is, the durability of alternative materials, will dictate applications. BSE Mg 200μm 200μm 200μm ΔΙ 200μm Low 200pm High 200μm Back-scattered electron (BSE) detector image and elemental maps of alkali-activated 75 wt% slag/25 wt% fly ash concrete cured for 28 days after 6 months of MgSO exposure. The authors report on the gel chemistry and how it varies with calcium content. Also, these materials are \"highly spatially heterogeneous,\" reflecting inhomogeneity of precursor material particle size, chemistry, mineralogy, and reactivity. That means microstructure, including porosity, dictates properties and must be understood. A durability discussion in the paper addresses curing, weathering and chemical attack (carbonation), sulfate exposure, and chloride exposure (especially important for steelreinforced concrete). The authors conclude that \"durability of AAMs is strongly dependent on the nano- and microstructure of the reaction products forming in these systems, as a function of the type of precursor, the nature and concentration of the activator, and also the maturity of the material. HighCa systems have a structure mainly dominated by a C-A-S-H gel, which is less porous than the ‘geopolymer\' gel forming in low-Ca systems. This is one of the main factors controlling the transport properties of AAMS; however, the differences in chemistry of both pore solution and reaction products in AAMs produced with different precursors modify the chemical mechanisms that can lead to the decay of these binders when exposed to aggressive environments.\" They also say, however, that the mechanisms of structural changes need to be better understood before AAMs are used, especially how they interact with different environments. Developing models and tests to predict service life in specific environments will be important for developing AAM cements and making progress toward formulating clinkerfree concrete. The paper is \"Durability of alkali-activated materials: Progress and perspectives\" (DOI: 10.1111/jace.12831). 16 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 (Credit: I. Ismail; JACerS, Wiley.) ●research briefs Cosintering commercially available glass frit and phosphors for white LED light Yellow-emitting phosphors convert some blue LED light and combine with the remaining blue light to make desirable and useful \"white light\" LED lightbulbs. (Credit: Wikimedia.) One technical obstacle facing LED light sources is the development of high-quality white light. A new article in the Journal of the American Ceramic Society outlines some of the problems with current conversion technology. They include degradation of epoxy resins that decrease transmittance and efficacy, refractive index of the epoxy that leads to total internal reflection of white light and efficiency reduction, and \"color temperature\" of commercial white light LEDs that is not warm (red) enough. To address these problems, a Korea-based group of researchers from Pohang University of Science and Technology and Kongju National University embedded phosphors in glass frit instead of epoxy. The group mixed high-refractiveindex, commercially available glass powders with Ce³+:YAG phosphors and cosintered the composites. They used a high-lead-content borosilicate composition: 50PbO-35B₂O 15SiO2 (mol %). The composition had the advantage of an index of refraction very close to that of the phosphor-1.8 and 1.83, respectively—which eliminated total internal reflection losses at the phosphor-matrix interface. Also, the composition had a low softening point. Researchers were interested in keeping processing temperatures low to prevent phosphor degradation, although the sintering temperature had to be higher than epoxy working temperatures. The researchers noticed no chemical reaction between the phosphors and the glass matrix, and the phosphors did not degrade during sintering. The luminescent properties were as good or better than commercial, epoxy-based wavelength converters. The group also experimented with improving the \"color\" of the white light, that is, making it more red or warmer. To do so, they added Eu³* and Mn²+ to the glass frit in the forms of Eu₂O₂ and MnO, hoping to increase light emission in the 620-710-nm wavelength region. This approach proved successful, too, and they were able to reduce the white light \"color temperature” from 7,000 K to about 4,000 K. The paper is \"Stable and color-tailorable white light from blue LEDs using color-converting phosphor-color composites\" (DOI: 10.111/jace.12739). 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Dodge Blvd., Tucson, AZ 85713 Tel: 520-514-1100 Fax: 520-747-4024 sales@advaluetech.com www.advaluetech.com A AdValue Technology 24-hour Shipment of Many In-stock Standard Sizes Custom Fabrication for Special Requests American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 17 research briefs Upconverting doped yttrium silicate ceramics are antibacterial VISIBLE UVC Scientists have created visible light-upconverting yttrium silicate ceramics that have antibacterial surface properties. In photon upconversion, a material absorbs low-energy visible photons and converts them into high-energy ultraviolet photons. Now, scientists from Yale University, Georgia Institute of Technology, and Chonbuk National University (South Korea) have manufactured upconverting ceramics. Their paper, published in Environmental Science & Technology, details the synthesis of antimicrobial ceramics that can kill bacteria through simple exposure to ambient visible light. The team, led by engineering professor Jaehong Kim, made the ceramics through “high-temperature sintering of compacted yttrium silicate powders doped with Pr³* and Li*,” according to the paper\'s abstract. They then tested these ceramics against bacterial spores. The upconverting ceramics had almost four times the bacterial spore-inactivating power of the team\'s previous phosphor coatings. Credit: J. Kim; Yale U. \"We are already working with new material compositions to produce ceramics with higher upconversion efficiencies and tailored emission ranges,\" Kim says in an email. \"With continued advances, we believe that visible-toUVC upconversion ceramics could benefit a host of antimicrobial applications, including surface disinfection in hospitals and other environments with a high risk of disease transfer. This technology also could be used to disinfect drinking water simply through exposure to sunlight.” The paper is \"Synthesis and characterization of visible-to-UVC upconversion antimicrobial ceramics\" (DOI: 10.1021/es405229p). Marine mollusks inspire stronger ceramics New research shows that marine mollusks are inspiring innovations in ceramics. Researchers from the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) report that nacre, or motherof-pearl, has inspired a new process for making stronger ceramics. The work, published in Nature Materials, successfully recreates nacre\'s stacked nanobrick structure with ceramic materials. The team used alumina powder suspended in water and froze the colloidal suspension, controlling the growth of ice crystals to get stacked platelets resembling nacre\'s sturdy microstructure. A high-temperature densification finalized the product, a ceramic that is 10 times stronger than traditional alumina ceramic. \"This is because a crack has to move round the alumina \'bricks\' one by one to propagate,\" states the CNRS press release. \"This zigzag pathway prevents it from crossing the material easily.\" According to the paper\'s abstract, the authors report \"the fabrication of bulk ceramics without a ductile phase and with a unique combination of high strength (470 MPa), high toughness (22 MPa m1/2), and high stiffness (290 GPa)\" that \"retains their mechanical properties at high temperatures (600°C).\" The process can be applied to any ceramic powder that forms platelets and, thus, could allow industrial scaling of the process, indicates the press release. The paper is \"Strong, tough and stiff bioinspired ceramics from brittle constituents\" (DOI: 10.1038/nmat3915). Researchers from Massuchusetts Institute of Technology also have been bioinspired to make stronger ceramics. Their creature of choice, Placuna placenta or windowpane oysters, has optically clear yet incredibly strong shells. The MIT research, also published in Nature Materials, indicates that the Scanning electron micrograph of the region surrounding an indentation made in a windowpane oyster seashell, showing localization of damage to the area immediately surrounding the stress. 18 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 (Credit: L. Li and J. Weaver; MIT.) strength again comes from microstructure, as the shells\' calcite is arranged in layered diamond-shaped crystals. The researchers used indentation tests and high-resolution imaging to determine how precisely those crystals respond to deformation. As the MIT press release explains, \"The material initially isolates damage through an atomic-level process called \'twinning\' within the individual ceramic building blocks: A crystal breaks up into a pair of mirror-image regions that share a common boundary, rather like a butterfly\'s wings. This twinning process occurs all around the stressed region, helping to form a kind of boundary that keeps the damage from spreading outward.\" This process then initiates \"a series of additional inelastic energy dissipating mechanisms, such as interfacial and intracrystalline nanocracking, viscoplastic stretching of interfacial organic material, and nanograin formation and reorientation,\" states the paper\'s abstract. The release suggests the research could aid future development of synthetic materials for commercial and military applications, including protective visible shields and windows. The paper is \"Pervasive nanoscale deformation twinning as a catalyst for efficient energy dissipation in a bioceramic armour\" (DOI: 10.1038/ nmat3920). Glass devitrite crystals as novel optical diffusers Triclinic \"devitrite\" is the prominent crystalline phase or \"stone\"-that results from devitrification of soda-limesilica glass. The overlapping fans of needles of devitrite crystals long have been discarded trash of the glass industry. But Haider Butt, a lecturer in microengineering and nanotechnology at the University of Birmingham (United Kingdom), recently discovered the use Polarized-light microscopy reveals that devitrite crystals, grown on heat-treated soda-lime-silica glass, form intricately beautiful fan-shaped needles. of devitrite as a novel optical diffuser. While training at Cambridge University (United Kingdom), Butt contacted materials scientist Kevin Knowles for samples of devitrite, as Knowles has published several papers characterizing the crystals and their properties. Butt explains in an email, “As a researcher, I am always looking for something that has never been done before because I believe that doing something new is easier and involves less work compared to repeating and improving something that has already been done.\" Butt and his colleagues tested the crystals\' diffusion of a red laser onto a semitransparent hemispherical screen and found that devitrite strongly diffuses light at wide angles. The authors write in the paper, \"In common with other ceramics and minerals, the refractive indices of devitrite are wavelength-dependent, so that different optical wavelengths undergo different phase retardance.\" Because many current optical dif(Credit: L. Li and J. Weaver; MIT.) fusers are nanofabricated with sophisticated methods, they are expensive. Devitrite, however, may be able to replace those diffusers because it is easy to produce at low cost. Potential applications are varied and include optical imaging, photovoltaics, and photolithography, as well as diffusers for thermal energy medical devices, visual display systems, and LEDs, the authors write in the paper. As Knowles says in an email, “Haider and I really hope that the interest in devitrite as an optical diffuser will lead to renewed interest in this material.\" The paper is titled \"Devitrite-based optical diffusers\" (DOI: 10.1021/ nn500155e). American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 19 O bulletin | cover story Touchscreen surface warfarePhysics and chemistry of antimicrobial behavior of ion-exchanged silver in glass Glass composition, silver concentration, and ambient conditions control antimicrobial efficacy on ion-exchanged glass surfaces and could reduce bacteria population on glass touchscreens. By C. Kosik Williams, N. F. Borrelli, W. Senaratne, Y. Wei, and O. Petzold The background display shows green-stained E. coli bacteria from the surface of a glass similar to the type used for electronic device touchscreens. (Credit: Corning Inc.) The \'he ubiquitous use of smartphones, tablets, bank ATMs, and other touchscreens has increased scientific and public concerns associated with bacteria on the surfaces of these devices. Engineering antimicrobial functionality onto the surface of handheld electronic devices—for example, the cover glass of smartphones—and can address these concerns via bacteria suppression. Doing so requires selecting the appropriate antimicrobial agent, developing an understanding of how to incorporate it into the glass, and how the antimicrobial effect is rendered. Extensive literature addresses the role of silver in materials as an antimicrobial agent. 1-3 (We adopt the generally accepted finding that the Ag¹+ ion is the antimicrobial agent. References to silver will be understood to mean the ion unless otherwise noted.) Here we limit our attention to the antimicrobial phenomenon as it occurs in the particular situation of silver-containing glasses. We will focus exclusively on the physical mechanism of the interaction between glass and microbe, rather than the actual biochemical process by which silver causes death.4 The efficacy of antimicrobial action depends on optimization of factors such as disposition of the silver in glass and influence of the ambient environment—in other words, how the silver releases from the glass and is brought into contact with the microbe. This article discusses glass composition, a method of incorporating silver into glass, www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 35.00 (Credit: Corning Inc.) effective concentration of silver on the temperasurface, and effect of ambient ture and relative humidity. An overall quantitative kinetic model predicting these factors is developed. lon-exchange-Pushing \'silver bullets\' into glass Molten salt baths for ion-exchange (IOX) were prepared from reagent grade salts: NaNO3, KNO, and AgNO3 in baths inside a furnace with temperature capability ranging from 300°C to 450°C. We used AgNO₂-alkali nitrate mixed baths rather than pure AgNO3 for reasons of cost, stability against decomposition, and ability to control the desired silver concentration. Selection of the alkali bath to use depends on the specific glass composition so as to maintain silver as the only diffusing species. Several measurement techniques lend themselves well to characterizing various aspects of the Ag¹+ disposition. Electron microprobe (EMP), X ray photoluminescence spectroscopy (XPS), and secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) techniques measure the depth of ions after the IOX process. Inductively coupled plasma/mass spectroscopy (ICP/MS) quantifies the amount of silver leached from the glass into a fixed amount of water for a given time. In addition, ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS) spectroscopy measures the relative amounts of Ag¹+ in glass from the shift in the UV edge. The base glass compositions were alkali aluminoborosilicates, and the effective species of silver was Ag¹+. The glass composition selected must allow maximal Ag¹ to be incorporated into the glass, while maintaining the desired glass properties, which are determined largely by the specific application.5 In general, Ag¹+ behaves in oxide glasses as a network modifier in a similar manner to Na* or K+.6,7 One approach to maximize the Ag¹+ concentration is to melt glass with a high alkali concentration and then substitute Ag¹ for the alkali. Unfortunately, at high concentrations, Ag¹ tends to reduce to metal. The extent to which this happens is a function of the glass Ag₂O concentration (wt%) 30.00 25.00 20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00 0 1 2 3 45 6 7 89 10 Depth (μm) Figure 1. Electron microprobe profile after silver-ion exchange in a 50 wt% AgNO3.50 wt% KNO3 bath for 5 min at 350°C. composition.8,9 The reduced silver has two adverse effects: It reduces the amount of active Ag¹+, and it induces color in the glass, which is an undesired trait for certain applications. One way to incorporate silver in glass is to add it as a salt to the batch composition. A more efficient method is to IOX Ag¹ for the alkali using a silver-containing molten salt bath. 10 IOX costs less because only Ag¹+ near the surface participates in the antimicrobial activity. It has the further advantages of lessening the coloring effect and applying to a variety of available commercial glasses, which might be of interest for their desirable thermomechanical properties. However, not all commercial glass compositions are suitable, because good antimicrobial behavior requires other properties, too, as will be explained. Measuring and modeling silver concentration profile The antibacterial action produced by silver ions is a \"surface effect.\" Therefore, a quantitative knowledge of surface Ag¹+ concentration, in µg/cm² or ions/cm², is critical in ascertaining the effectiveness of antimicrobial action. Silver in the bulk glass below the surface plays no antimicrobial role, because it has no access to bacteria on the surface. Figure 1 shows the EMP profile of silver-ion concentration, expressed as Ag₂O wt%, versus depth for IOX glass samples prepared from a American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 50 wt% AgNO3.50 wt% KNO3 bath. However, the relationship of the steady-state concentration of Ag¹+ in the molten bath [e.g., xAgNO3·(1 − x) MNO3, where M is an alkali] to that in the glass is not straightforward. It depends on glass composition and bath composition, that is, whether the IOX of silver is for lithium, sodium, or potassium. The statistical mechanical approach used by Araujo provides the basis for developing a model for IOX in this system. We used Araujo\'s approach to calculate silver mole fraction in the glass as a function of the mole fraction of silver in the bath for a typical alkali aluminoborosilicate glass. It is important to recognize that this relationship is highly nonlinear and depends on bath constituents and glass composition. Creating a \'kill zone\'-Role of the hydrated surface layer 1+ To interpret antimicrobial behavior requires understanding the role of ambient environment. Any reaction of the microbe with Ag¹* occurs on the surface, and there must be a liquid vehicle to support both the Ag₁+ and the microbe to create a reaction zone. This vehicle is the ubiquitous hydrated layer described in several references as the hydrogen-bonded (chemically adsorbed) and physisorbed water layers. 11,12 Saliba et al., 13 measured water layer thickness (number of water layers) as a function of relative humidity using an 21 Touchscreen surface warfare-Physics and chemistry of antimicrobial behavior . . . NA NB Ag Ag Glass Water Bug Ag (Credit: Corning Inc.) Figure 2. Schematic representation of the interaction of Ag¹* in the hydrated layer with a microbe. No represents the concentration of silver that exchanges into the hydrated layer, and Q is the partition function from Eq. (3). N is the concentration of bacteria, and k is the bacterial growth or death rate constant and varies according to species. infrared (IR) measurement of water on a glass surface under controlled relative humidity conditions. Our understanding of the phenomenon is that moisture on the surface equilibrated from ambient air provides the mediating role. We further assume that Ag near or at the glass surface comes into equilibrium with silver in the hydrated layer, where the interaction with bacteria occurs (Figure 2). We estimated how much Ag¹+ from glass equilibrates with that in the hydrated layer using a “leaching” approach, where we soaked silvercontaining glass in deionized water and measured the amount of silver in the leach solution using ICP/MS detection. We also had recourse to the Araujo chemical potential model to relate the amount of silver in the hydrated layer to that in glass. We now consider the \"bath\" as the silver-containing glass and the \"glass\" as the hydrated layer. The goal was to ascertain how glass composition influences phenomena relating to the hydrated layer. Killing germs-A kinetic model of antimicrobial function To be useful for touchscreen devices, the antimicrobial property must activate within a practical timeframe. A general kinetic model can help understand the antimicrobial results irrespective of the type of test used, in particular the role of ambient humidity. The proposed model assumes silver interacts with the microbe only in the hydrated layer, where both species are sufficiently mobile. We can ignore diffusion within the layer, although one could easily add the computational terms if required. The model is essentially a kinetic model and accounts for the amount of Ag¹+ at the glass surface and in the hydrated layer, and how it interacts with bacteria. Figure 3 shows a typical output of numerical simulation using the mathematical model for factors described in the previous sections to predict the anticipated antimicrobial property of the glass surface. In other words, will silver introduced into the glass ultimately lead to antimicrobial activity? More importantly, what factors control antimicrobial efficacy? The kinetic model incorporates various factors (Ag¹+ in glass and the hydrated layer, thickness of the layer, and interaction of the bacteria with Ag¹ in the layer) in a quantitative way to understand antimicrobial activity. To estimate the role of ambiBacteria concentration (CFU/mL) Bacteria Silver 1.5-07 1.E+06 1.6+05 1.E-041.E-03 1.6+02 ent humidity on the antimicrobial efficacy, we modeled a representative example of silver concentration in glass. We then use the hydrated layer thickness as determined by relative humidity. Using the model to predict antimicrobial efficacy as a function of relative humidity, Figure 4 shows that efficacy drops rapidly with decreasing relative humidity. 13 The span of time over which antimicrobial function needs to be effective varies widely depending on the application. For example, smartphones have an average lifespan of 21 months, whereas bank automated teller machines could be in service for up to 10 years. An advantage of the kinetic model is that it can be used to predict the lifetime efficacy of glass antimicrobial activity. Figure 5 shows antimicrobial efficacy of a silver-containing antimicrobial glass versus a standard cover glass without antimicrobial functionality. The number of Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria, made visible with a fluorescent dye, deposited on the glass surfaces clearly declined on silver-containing antimicrobial glass within two hours, while no perceptible change was observed on standard glass within the same timeframe. Antimicrobial lifetime refers to the viability of Ag¹ over an extended period of use. Standardized test protocols evaluate antimicrobial surfaces in terms 9.0E+07 8.0E+07 7.0E+07 6.0+07 5.0E+07 4,0E+07 3.0E+07 20E+07 1.E+01 1.0E+07 1.6-00-10 1.0E+05 10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 Time (min) Silver concentration (ions/cm²) Figure 3. Solution for numerical simulation of the kinetic model for silver-ion concentrations and bacteria levels over a range of times. In this case, relative humidity was 80%. (Credit: Corning Inc.) 22 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No.4 Predicted bacterial log kill 1 I.... >90% 70% 50% 30% 25% Relative humidity Figure 4. Kinetic model prediction for antimicrobial efficacy as a function of relative humidity. Each \"log kill\" represents a 90% kill rate, i.e, 10% survival rate. of \"bio-burden.\"14 There are several versions of bio-burden. What is common to all is the application of inoculum for a given extended period of time, followed by a series of rinses or wipes and then another inoculum exposure and antimicrobial test. We can use the kinetic model to estimate antimicrobial lifetime, including the mathematical term that regenerates Ag¹+ from glass. 30 min 21 h Summary Glasses containing silver ions introduced by IOX can produce a viable antimicrobial surface if care is taken to understand the physical and chemical processes that contribute to overall antimicrobial efficacy. To find an optimum set of conditions to maximize antimicrobial efficacy, we must understand each process in some detail. To Standard cover glass Ag-containing antimicrobial glass (Credit: Corning Inc.) Figure 5. Viability of E. coli bacteria, labeld with a fluorescent dye, on standard and silver-containing antimicrobial cover glasses after 30 min and 2 h. After 4 h the number of bacteria colony-forming units observed fell by more than six orders of magnitude. (Credit: Coming Inc.) that end, we modeled the amount of silver in glass from an IOX bath and, ultimately, how much silver ends up on the glass surface in the hydrated layer. We determined that explicit understanding of the role of the hydrated layer and how it relates to the ambient environment is critical to evaluate the specific antimicrobial efficacy. Our model also allowed us to estimate the lifetime of antimicrobial activity as a function of Ag¹in glass. Acknowledgements The authors thank Joseph Schroeder and Advanced Materials and Processing laboratory for sample preparation; Karl Koch for assistance with the kinetic model; Benjamin Hanson (EMP); Elzbieta Bakowska (ICP/MS) in Characterization and Materials Processing for various characterizations; and Gary Calabrese and Prantik Mazumder for helpful discussions and suggestions for the paper. About the authors C. Kosik Williams, N. F. Borrelli, W. Senaratne, Y. Wei, and O. Petzold are researchers in the Science and Technology Division of Corning International Inc., Corning, NY 14830. Contact Kosik Williams at kosikwilca@ Corning.com. References \"L. Esteban-Tejada, F. Malpartida, A. Esteban-Cubillo, C. Pecharroman, and J.S. Moya, \"The antibacterial and antifungal activity of a soda-lime glass containing silver nanoparticles,\" Nanotechnology, 20, 85103 (2009). 2J.S. Kim, E. Kuk, K. Yu, J.-H. Kim, S.J. Park, H.J. Lee, S.H. Kim, Y.K. Park, Y.H. Park, C.-Y. Hwang, Y.-K. Kim, Y.-S. Lee, D.H. Jeong, and M.-H. Cho, \"Antimicrobial effects of silver nanoparticles,\" Nanomed: Nanotechnol., Biol., Med., 3, 95 (2007). 3Z. Xiu, Q. Zhang, H.L. Puppala, V.L. Colvin, and P.J. Alvarez, \"Negligible particle-specific antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles,” Nanolett., 12, 4271 (2012). 4R.B. Thurman and C.P. Gerba, \"The molecular mechanisms of copper and silver ion disinfection of bacteria and viruses,\" Crit. Rev. Environ. Control, 18, 295 (1989). American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 23 Touchscreen surface warfare 5N. Borrelli, D. Morse, W. Senaratne, Y. Wei, and F. Verrier, “Coated, antimicrobial, chemically strengthened glass and method of making,\" US Pat. Application No. 20120034435, 2011. ‘H.H. Garfinkel, Phys. Chem., 78, 4175 (1968). R.J. Araujo, S. Litkitvanichkul, and D.C. Allen, “Ion exchange equilibria between glass and molten salts,\" J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 318, 262 (2003). 8S.E. Paje, M.A. Garcia, J. Llopis, and M.A. Villegas, \"Optical spectroscopy of silver ionexchanged As-doped glass,\" J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 318, 239 (2003). 9S.E. Paje, M.A. Garcia, M.A Villegas, and J. Llopis, “Optical properties of silver ionexchanged antimony-doped glass,\" J. NonCryst. Solids, 278, 128 (2000). 10R. Araujo, \"Colorless glasses containing ion-exchanged silver,” Appl. Opt., 31, 5221 (1992). 11R.K. Iler, The chemistry of silica. Wiley, New York, 1979. 12L.T. Zhuravlev, \"The surface chemistry of amorphous silica: Zhuravlev model\"; pp. 1-38 in Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, Vol. 173. Elsevier, New York, 2000. 13N.A. Saliba, H. Yang, and B.J. FinlaysonPitts, \"Reaction of gaseous nitric oxide with nitric acid on silica surfaces in the presence of water at room temperature,” J. Phys. Chem. A, 105, 10339 (2000). 14\"Test method for efficacy of copper alloy surfaces as a sanitizer,\" US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., 2010.■ ceramics expo April 28-30, 2015 Cleveland, Ohio The manufacturing tradeshow for advanced ceramic materials and technologies 2015 exhibition & sponsorship opportunities now open find your vendors with ceramicSOURCE ceramicsource.org Ceramics Expo Ceramics Expo offers a comprehensive marketplace for ceramic materials and component manufacturing. The event provides a shop floor for all equipment, products and services used throughout the ceramic supply chain. Contact our team today to find out how you can participate. Email us at info@ceramicsexpousa.com or call us toll free: +1 855 436 8683. Founding Partner The American Ceramic Society www.ceramics.org \"Ceramics Expo establishes a crucial marketplace for ceramic manufacturing and supply chain products » Charlie Spahr, Executive Director, The American Ceramic Society Register online today for a free pass www.ceramicsexpousa.com 24 Passive purification(Credit: Thinkstock) Light intensity can vary dramatically in indoor spaces, which presents a challenge for photocatalytic air purification. M uch has been written in mainstream and scientific sources about technologies that purify air or provide self-cleaning properties to clothing and other items by harnessing the oxidative power of light. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) provides these exciting benefits, expanding its utility beyond its long history as a white colorant in paint and a common ingredient in cosmetics, sunscreens, ceramic tile, windows, and cement. When exposed to the correct wavelength and intensity of light, TiO2 acts as a photocatalyst and oxidizes diverse contaminants that cause stains, odors, and air pollution. It also kills bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms. TiO2 is a semiconductor and a photocatalytic material. It exists as anatase, rutile, and brookite polymorphs. All possess Effectiveness of photocatalytic activity, but the anatase form (Figure 1) has photocatalytic proved to be the most effective photocatalyst for cleaning or purifying applications. When activated by light, electrons in the semiconductor are excited from the valence band to the conduction band. These electrons, and the holes they leave titanium dioxide to behind, react with oxygen and water to form superoxide and convert pathogens and pollutants By Karen Welch Titanium dioxide has the potential to clean and disinfect under the right lighting conditions and environment. hydroxyl radicals (see sidebar, p. 28). These reactive oxygen species (ROS) and electron holes are powerful oxidants that provide self-cleaning and self-sanitizing properties to TiO.¹ The use of photocatalytically derived ROS to oxidize organic and inorganic compounds has many real world applications. For example, TiO2 has been incorporated into window glass to fabricate self-cleaning windows. Pilkington, Saint-Gobain, PPG, Cardinal Glass Industries, and Nippon Sheet Glass offer commercial self-cleaning window products. Another selfcleaning application uses the photocatalyst within the light covers in highway tunnels, where activation occurs because of the proximity and intensity of the lamps themselves.² Also, \"Wendy,\" an outdoor interactive art installation at the Museum of Modern Art (New York), in summer 2012, took advantage of the activity of sunlight-powered TiO2 nanoparticles sprayed on its nylon pyrometric-cone-shaped appears to decrease the levels of nitrogen dioxide and other airborne pollutants (Figure 2). In the future, TiO2 coatings may be applied to surgical implants to prevent bacterial colonization and growth, while not threatening native bone and tissue growth. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 25 Passive purification-Effectiveness of photocatalytic titanium dioxide to ... Ti Ο Figure 1. TiO2 anatase crystal structure. This article briefly reviews TiO2 photocatalytic technology and the research that led to its potential as an environmental purifier. The article also attempts to provide perspective to these claims by discussing the technology\'s current capabilities for use in the home environment and technical issues surrounding its use. History-From water splitter to germ killer Fujishima and Honda³ demonstrated the photocatalytic effect in 1972 when they split water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen molecules using TiO2 activated with light wavelengths <415 nm. Light with wavelengths from 320 to 400 nm is in the ultraviolet A (UVA) range. In 1985, Matsunaga et al. reported that TiO2-platinum semiconductor powder could kill bacteria and yeast. Since that time, the effectiveness of TiO2 has been demonstrated against a wide range of organisms. In 2003, Ibáñez et al.5 demonstrated bacterial concentration reductions of almost 4 to 5 orders of magnitude in 40 min for individual strains of gram-negative bacteria. (Gram-negative bacteria cause infections, such as pneumonia and wound infections. They are increasingly resistant to antibiotic treatment.) The light source was a long-wavelength UV lamp, and light intensity ranged from 14 W/m² for Pseudomonas aeruginosa to 55 W/m² for E. coli, Enterobacter 26 Krizu, Wikimedia Commons ( cloaceae, and Salmonella typhimurium. Another study by Dunlop et al.6 in 2010 showed the effectiveness of TiO₂treated surfaces activated with UVA light against clinically relevant organisms, including E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and spores of Clostridium difficile. (Figure 3 shows typical bacterial colony growth in a petri dish.) UVA irradiation of 30 W/m² was used to achieve a 3 log kill (99.9% reduction) within 60 min for all but the clinically relevant E. coli strain (3 log kill in 80 min) and a 2.6 log kill in 5 h for the Clostridium spores. (The unit log kill represents a 90% kill rate or 10% survival rate. Thus, 3 log kill represents 1,000-fold reduction of pathogens, or 99.9% kill rate.) These results strongly support the antibacterial potential of photoactivated TiO2 under robust lighting conditions. They also highlight the differences in susceptibility to the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 among various organisms. Light intensity and phase stability Researchers report a direct relationship between the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 and UVA intensity. One 2009 study examining photocatalytic action on organic vapors using commercially available TiO2-treated tile showed that decreasing UVA light intensity from 10 to 1 W/ m² decreased photocatalytic efficiency to 15% of the original value. This need for relatively intense UVA light exposure is a concern for indoor applications of photocatalytic technology. Because UVA is known to cause skin cancer and premature skin aging, domestic lighting products are currently designed and manufactured to minimize emissions in this range. As a result, product designers do not expect the light energy needed to generate and sustain photocatalytic activity to be present consistently in the typical home. We demonstrated this variability in UVA intensity with measurements taken during the late morning of a fall day in North Carolina. The UVA intensity of direct sunlight streaming through a home window was 60 W/m². However, the UVA light intensity measured 10 ft away from the same window was 0.033 W/m², a decrease by a factor of more than 1,800. A similar room on p. 25 shows the wide variability of light intensity typical of indoor spaces. We took additional measurements at night in the presence of typical fluorescent indoor lighting with all of the light fixtures in a master bedroom/bath suite turned on. Under these conditions UVA intensity varied from 0.073 W/m² at the sink surface to 0.002 W/m² in a corner of the shower enclosure. Again, the UVA intensity levels were 2 to 4 orders of magnitude below those found in outdoor or high-intensity UV exposure applications. These measurements CITIWIDE Figure 2. \'Wendy,\' the winning design of MoMA\'s Young Architects Program in 2012. TiO2 nanoparticles sprayed on its surfaces neutralize nitrogen dioxide air pollution. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 (Credit: Wikimedia Commons) Figure 3. Bacterial colonies growing on an agar plate. indicate that the levels of UVA lighting indoors can be weak and highly variable, even within the same room. Therefore, depending on photocatalytic technology activated by UVA light at levels that are not common or safe for indoor is clearly a limitation and spaces technical challenge. To address this limitation, researchers are working to achieve photocatalytic activation under visible-light conditions by incorporating other elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, silver, or copper within or on the surface of the TiO, crystal structure.⁹ Many of these studies demonstrate photocatalytic activity under lighting conditions not consistently or universally found in the home. However, a few have demonstrated antibacterial activity under weaker UV light exposure. Sunada et al.10 made antibacterial surfaces that responded to weak UV light at intensities of 0.01 to 0.4 W/m². The study described the use of a thin film of TiO2 prepared by dip coating followed by calcination in a furnace at 500°C. The authors added copper to the surface by liquid deposition followed by a UV light treatment. They measured a 1.6-log bacterial decrease after 3 h of illumination at 0.4 W/m². At the lowest UVA light level, 0.01 W/m², the bacterial decrease was ~80% after 3 h and was not significantly different from the decrease achieved in the dark by the effect of the added copper. Sato and Taya¹¹ used a similar copper-doped TiO2-coated glass plate (prepared by spin coating and drying (Credit: Thinkstock) at 100°C) with visible light intensity levels of 3 and 28 W/m² provided by a white fluorescent tubular lamp. They measured a 3 log kill (99.9% reduction) at 28 W/m² in 30 min. However, this light intensity is not significantly lower than what could be produced from sunlight exposure. The authors demonstrated that a significant portion of the antimicrobial effect was caused by copper ions that leached from the photocatalyst surface. Sato and Taya demonstrated that a concentration of 10 mmol/m³ copper in solution provided the optimal photocatalytic activity. This concentration was comparable with the amount of copper that leached into the aqueous solution in contact with the tile after 6 h while under irradiation. They further demonstrated that once the amount of available copper decreased below a threshold concentration, the TiO2 film became much less effective under visible light conditions. High-temperature manufacturing processes, such as those needed to produce ceramics and sanitary ware with high-touch or durable surface properties, present another technical challenge to incorporating photocatalytic TiO2. The phase transition from the more photoactive anatase form of TiO2 to the more stable rutile form begins at ~600°C for pure anatase, which is well below conventional firing temperatures.¹² Unregulated polymorphic transformations such as this would limit the ability to incorporate photocatalytic materials. Added dopants— metallic and nonmetallic—and the impurities present in TiO2 can affect the phase stability of the anatase form. However, the high-temperature stability of anatase TiO2 also depends on many other factors involved in TiO₂ synthesis and preparation. Aluminum, silicon, and zirconium oxides are effective at stabilizing the anatase form at increased temperatures. However, photocatalytic TiO2 is applied to ceramics during postfiring to avoid the phase transition from anatase to rutile. Optical properties and durability of the surface as well as maintaining photocatalytic activity are key concerns. One reported method involves depositing cold nano-TiO, powder on glazed ceramic articles as they exit the heat zone of the kiln.13 Dopants may be added in this step, or in a separate step. Liquidphase depositions with secondary firings also are used. A recent report describes a scale-up study in which a TiO2 coating was applied by ink jet or roller printing. 14 Several postapplication firing temperatures were explored, and the authors identified a compromise between the photocatalytic activity achieved with lower temperature firing and the surface durability achieved at a higher temperature. Another report describes a liquid-phase deposition of a silvercontaining TiO2 film by immersion in an aqueous solution followed by annealing at an optimal temperature of 600°C.15 Standard testing methodology One important aspect in the evaluation of new technologies is the establishment and acceptance of standardized testing to measure relevant Table 1. ISO standards for testing photocatalytic activity Standard ISO 10677:2011 ISO 10678:2010 ISO 13125:2013 ISO 22197-1:2007 ISO 27447:2009 ISO 27448:2009 Title Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics)—Ultraviolet light source for testing semiconducting photocatalytic materials Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics)—Determination of photocatalytic activity of surfaces in an aqueous medium by degradation of methylene blue Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics)—Test method for antifungal activity of semiconducting photocatalytic materials Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics)-Test method for air-purification performance of semiconducting photocatalytic materials-Part 1: Removal of nitric oxide Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics)-Test method for antibacterial activity of semiconducting photocatalytic materials Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics)—Test method for self-cleaning performance of semiconducting photocatalytic materials—Measurement of water contact angle American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 27 Passive purification-Effectiveness of photocatalytic titanium dioxide to . . . effects. Because of questions surrounding indoor light activation of TiO₂, appropriate standards are essential for evaluating the performance of materials under conditions that are representative of the home or other indoor environments. There are several ISO protocols for the photocatalytic activity of ceramic tile, including standards for antibacterial and antifungal activity as well as degradation of organic and inorganic molecules. Table 1 lists the International Organization for Standards (ISO) standards reviewed at the time of this writing. Each of these standards specifies the use of a light source whose primary output is in the UVA range. The antifungal standard (ISO 13125:2013) specifies two light levels, 4 and 8 W/m². It further indicates that higher-intensity light is required, because fungal spores are more resistant to photocatalytic action than bacteria. The antibacterial standard (ISO 27447:2009) covers four possible regimes ranging from low indoor light to a level approximating an indoor area with sunlight exposure. The other standards surveyed at present specify light intensities of ≥10 W/m². Thus, we can assess only the antibacterial activity of TiO2 catalysts under lower light levels. Moreover, visiblelight active photocatalysts do not have a comparable set of standard procedures to test their performance. More air quality questions Air purification by oxidation of organic and inorganic compounds is one of the important benefits claimed for TiO2-based technologies. Thus, questions about the effect of TiO2 on air quality in the home are of utmost importance. The environment in enclosed spaces can be more polluted than what is found outdoors, and indoor pollutants can irritate the eyes and respiratory tract and exacerbate allergies and asthma. Hydroxyl radical, one of the ROS generated by photocatalytic TiO2, forms in the home from the action of ozone on the chemical compounds found in natural homecleaning products. 16 Once formed, the hydroxyl radical participates in Photocatalysis and the science of defects Two important factors that determine the effectiveness of a photocatalytic material, such as TiO2, are the rate of formation of charge carriers-electrons and holes-and the rate of recombination of those charge carriers. 12 After the charge carriers form, conditions must be right for them to react with water, oxygen, or other chemical compounds. Understanding of photocatalytic activity requires more, namely, to identify defects in the lattice structure of the material as sites that stabilize charge carriers to produce a more photoactive material. In TiO2, titanium and oxygen atoms are arranged as TiО octahedra. The lattice defects result at edges and boundaries in the material where octahedra are not complete. The defects may be in the form of an oxygen vacancy or a titanium atom in a reduced state. A discussion of defects can be extended to the incorporation of dopants into the TiO2 structure. Substitutions of cations or anions in the material can increase or decrease the number of oxygen vacancies in the material, in addition to the chemical effect of the dopant itself. These lattice changes modulate the material\'s band gap (the difference in energy between the valence band and the conduction band) or introduce midgap states. Dopants also can increase the lifetimes of electrons and holes and promote absorption of species on the TiO2 surface. 12 (a) When a semiconductor absorbs light with energy (E) that is equal to or greater than its band gap, an electron is promoted from the valence band to the conduction band. This electron (e), as well as the hole (ht) in the valence band, can participate in chemical reactions. (b) The electron can react with oxygen to produce a superoxide radical, while the hole can react with water to form a hydroxyl radical, or it can react with an organic molecule. (a) (b) oxidation reactions that contribute to the mix of chemicals that constitute indoor pollution. Conduction band Band gap E Valence band C E Band gap h+ Studies on the action of photocatalytic TiO for air purification have approximated the indoor environment by including more than one compound to be oxidized. 17,18 However, air in the home may contain more than 60 volatile organic compounds (VOCs). 19 Studies with multiple compounds indicate that these compounds may be oxidized at various rates based on their affinity for the TiO2 surface. Water also “competes\" with organic molecules for sites on the TiO2, surface, and relative humidity is accordingly an important factor in the oxidation rates of molecules by photocatalytic oxidation. gaseous H₂O ⚫OH + H+ Thus, in a mixture of organic molecules, one or more may be oxidized completely through several reactions to carbon dioxide as a final product, while another group is partially oxidized and other molecules are unaffected. Because partially oxidized VOCs may be more harmful or toxic than their precursors, this question deserves careful attention. 16,20 The potential for TiO2 photocatalysts to produce toxic products from household cleaners or other sources also is a concern.21 Another important question is the rate of oxidation of VOCs at the levels that are found in the home-typically in the parts-per-billion. Multiple studies demonstrate that the rate at which TiO2-treated surfaces convert 28 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 organic compounds decreases as the ambient concentration of the compounds decreases. 17,18 An evaluation of commercial TiO2-treated paints revealed no oxidation of a mixture of organic compounds each at levels of 30-100 ppb with 1 W/m² UVA light.22 The authors further demonstrated that air exchange was more effective in removing these VOCs from the 1-m³ sample chamber. Observation of the oxidation of formaldehyde was complicated, because the illuminated painted surfaces gave off formaldehyde. Compounds that were offgassed from the paint samples in the presence of light were oxidized by the TiO2 in the paint, although complete oxidation to carbon dioxide was not discussed. A final question results from the tendency of photocatalytic surfaces to become fouled by the products of photocatalytic reactions. 23,24 Heating, or prolonged periods of strong UV irradiation may be needed to clean the catalyst surface. Washing with water may suffice in other cases. Summary Photocatalytic TiO2 has significant potential in applications where high-intensity UV light or the UVA component of sunlight provides sufficient energy to promote photocatalytic reactions. In lower-light environments, such as those found in the home, photocatalytic activity is significantly decreased in areas where sufficient light is not consistently available during daytime and nighttime hours. In a survey of several ISO standards pertaining to photocatalytic ceramics, only the antibacterial standard includes lower-lightactivity measurements. The claims regarding the activity of TiO2 are broad and far-reaching, including bacteria, fungi, and a diverse group of volatile compounds, all found in indoor environments. Limited testing of multiple chemical or biological species simultaneously means that it is not certain how photocatalytic TiO₂based materials will perform indoors in the presence of multiple challenges. Moreover, questions about the effect of TiO2-based materials on indoor air quality should be addressed, because a photocatalyst made ineffective by inadequate lighting or other means may have little to no effect on indoor air quality, or it may serve to increase the concentrations of potentially harmful indoor pollutants. Although its potential for cleaning and disinfecting surfaces remains, there is a strong indication Organizers: that TiO2 photocatalytic technology will not \"shine\" in every light or in every environment. About the author Karen Welch is manager of analytical chemistry at Microban International Ltd., Huntersville, N.C. Contact Welch at karen.welch@microban.com. AIST ASM INTERNATIONAL TMS MS&T14 Materials Science & Technology 2014 David L. Lawrence Convention Center Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania USA Cosponsor: S NACE The leading forum addressing structure, properties, processing and performance across the materials community. Save the Date! The technical program covers: • • ⚫ Biomaterials UPMC • Ceramic and Glass Materials • Characterization October 12-16, 2014 • Electronic, Optical, and Magnetic Materials Fundamentals • Green Manufacturing and Sustainability • Iron and Steel (Ferrous Alloys) • • Materials Behavior and Performance • Materials-Environment Interactions Nanomaterials • Processing and Product Manufacturing • Surface Modification . ⚫ Special Topics American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org wwwww www.matscitech.org 29 30 30 Passive purification-Effectiveness of photocatalytic titanium dioxide to . . . References ¹O.K. Dalrymple, E. Stefanakos, M.A. Trotz, and T.D. Goswami, \"A review of the mechanisms and modeling of photocatalytic disinfection,\" Appl. Catal. B, 98, 27-38 (2010). 2H. Honda, A. Ishizaki, R. Soma, K. Hashimoto, and A. Fujishima, \"Application of photocatalytic reactions caused by TiO, film to improve the maintenance factor of lighting systems,\" J. Illum. Eng. Soc., 28, 42-47 (1998). 3A. Fujishima and F. Honda, \"Electrochemical photolysis of water at a semiconductor electrode,\" Nature, 238, 38-39 (1972). 4T. Matsunaga, R. Tomoda, T. Nakajima, and H. Wake, \"Photoelectrochemical sterilization of microbial cells by semiconductor powders,\" FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 29, 211-14 (1985). 5J.A. Ibáñez, M.I. Litter, and R.A. Pizarro, \"Photocatalytic bactericidal effect of TiO2 on Enterobacter cloacae: Comparative study with other Gram (-) bacteria,\" J. Photochem. Photobiol. A, 157, 81-85 (2003). 6P.S. Dunlop, C.P. Sheeran, J.A. Byrne, M.A.S. McMahon, M.A. Boyle, and K.G. McGuigan, \"Inactivation of clinically relevant pathogens by photocatalytic coatings,\" J. Photochem. Photobiol. A., 216, 303-10 (2010). 7A. Mills, S. Hodgen, and S.K. Lee, “Self-cleaning titania films: An overview of direct, lateral, and remote photooxidation processes,\" Res. Chem. Intermed., 31, 295–308 (2005). 8E. Land, M. Bergin, and G. Huey, \"Photocatalytic degradation of VOCs by TOTO\'s hydrotect (TiO2-impregnated) surfaces: Technical report on TiO2-impregnated tiles,\" School of Earth and Atmospheric Science and School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Ga., Dec. 9, 2009. ⁹M. Pelaez, N.T. Nolan, S.C. Pillai, P. Seery, A.G. Falaras, A.G. Kontos, P.S.M. Dunlop, J.W.J. Hamilton, J.A. Byrne, K. O\'Shea, M.H. Entezari, and D.D. Dionysiou, \"A review on the visible light active titanium dioxide photocatalysts for environmental applications,” Appl. Catal., B, 125, 331-49 (2012). 10K. Sunada, T. Watanabe, and K. Hashimoto, \"Bactericidal activity of copper-deposited TiO, thin film under weak UV light illumination,\" Environ. Sci. Technol., 37, 4785-89 (2003). T. Sato and M. Taya, \"Copper-aided photosterilization of microbial cells on TiO, film under irradiation from a white fluorescent lamp,\" Biochem. Eng. J., 30, 199-204 (2006). 12D.A.H. Hanaor and C.C. Sorrell, \"Review of the anatase to rutile phase transition,\" J. Mater. Sci., 46, 855-74 (2011). 13J. Prochazka, \"Manufacturing of photocatalytic, antibacterial, and self-cleaning and optically noninterfering surfaces on tiles and glazed ceramic products,\" WO Pat. Application PCT/CZ2003/000019, 2004-09-23. 14M. Raimondo, C. Zanelli, G. Guarini, M. Dondi, F. Marani, and L. Fossa, \"Photocatalytic ceramic tiles: Key factors in industrial scale-up (and the open question of performance)\"; presented at Qualicer\'12, Global Forum on Ceramic Tile, Castellón, Spain, Feb. 13-14, 2012. 15S.-Q. Sun, B. Sun, W. Zhang, and D. Wang, “Preparation and antimicrobial activity of Ag-TiO composite film by liquid-phase deposition (LPD) method,\" Bull. Mater. Sci., 31, 61-66 (2008). 16C.J. Weschler and H. Shields, \"Measurements of the hydroxyl radical in a manipulated but realistic indoor environment,\" Environ. Sci. Technol., 31, 3719-22 (1997). 17T. Noguchi, A. Fujishima, P. Sawunyama, and K. Hashimoto, \"Photocatalytic degradation of gaseous formaldehyde using TiO, film,\" Environ. Sci. Technol., 32, 3831-33 (1998). 18T.N. Obee, and S.O. Hay, \"The estimation of photocatalytic rate constants based on molecular structure: Extending to multicomponent systems,\" J. Adv. Oxid. Technol., 4, 147-52 (1999). 19P. Wolkoff, P.A. Clausen, B. Jensen, G.D. Neilsen, and C.K. Wilkins, \"Are we measuring the relevant indoor pollutants?\" Indoor Air, 7, 92-106 (1997). 20A.T. Hodgson, D.P. Sullivan, and W.J. Fisk, \"Evaluation of ultraviolet photocatalytic oxidation (UVPCO) for indoor air applications: Conversion of volatile organic compounds at low part-per-billion concentrations,\" Technical Report LBNL-58936, Indoor Environment Department, Environmental Energy Technologies Division, E.O. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, Calif., Sept. 2005. 21M.A. Kebede, M.E. Varner, N.K. Scharko, R.B. Gerber, and J.D. Raff, \"Photooxidation of ammonia on TiO2 as a source of NO and NO₂ under atmospheric conditions,” J. Am. Chem. Soc., 135, 8606-15 (2013). 22T. Salthammer and F. Fuhrmann, \"Photocatalytic surface reactions on indoor wall paint,\" Environ. Sci. Technol., 41, 6573-78 (2007). 23W.A. Zeltner and D.T. Tompkins, \"Shedding light on photocatalysis,\" ASHRAE Trans., 111, 523-34 (2005). 24L. Cao, Z. Gao, S.L. Suib, T.N. Obee, S.O. Hay, and J.D. Freihaut, \"Photocatalytic oxidation of toluene on nanoscale TiO, catalysts: Studies of deactivation and regeneration,\" J. Catal., 196, 253-61 (2000). www.ceramics.org/ema2015 6 SUBMIT YOUR ABSTRACTS BY SEPTEMBER 10, 2014 call for papers s ELECTRONIC MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS 2015 January 21-23 | DoubleTree by Hilton Orlando at Sea World | Orlando, Florida USA The American Ceramic Society www.ceramics.org D www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 Reengineering US patent law with the America Invents Act By Steve Ritchey The second article in a two-part series reviews patent law changes that began in 2011 with the signing of the America Invents Act and suggests best practices for complying with the law. (Credit: Wikimedia commons; Pete Souza) O In September 16, 2011, President Barack Obama signed the LeahySmith America Invents Act (AIA). That signature kick-started what is considered to be the most substantial overhaul of United States patent law since enactment of the present Patent Act in 1952. The AIA implemented the changes in three stages across an 18-month timeline: • September 2011—implementation of a wide variety of miscellaneous changes; • September 2012—implementation of changes challenging the validity of patents before the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO); and • March 2013—the US changed from a first-to-invent regime to a first-to-file regime. Although the changes were many and detailed, this article offers a high-level discussion of the most significant changes along the timeline. Miscellaneous changes effective September 16, 2011 A wide variety of miscellaneous changes became effective September 16, 2011, including several measures that affect patent infringement, patent marking, and prior use defense. Best mode One of the more perplexing changes involved the \"best mode\" requirement (i.e., the inventor\'s disclosure regarding the best way to practice the invention). Although Congress did not eliminate the requirement, it eliminated “failure to disclose the best mode\" as a basis for which a claim or a patent may be canceled or held invalid or unenforceable. This was done because patent infringement defendants often alleged the patent was invalid for failing to disclose the best mode. These defenses usually were unsuccessful, but reaching the decision point typically involved a substantial amount of time and money to conduct discovery on a very fact-dependent inquiry focused on events that took place 10 to 15 years earlier. patMoreover, most, if not all, other countries do not require disclosing the best mode to obtain patents. On its face, this change seems to allow applicants to avoid part of the quid pro quo bargain (that is, disclosure in exchange for the limited ent monopoly) and keep their best mode a secret. However, not disclosing the best mode does involve risk: This change has not yet been before the courts, and, therefore, its propriety and scope have not yet been determined. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 31 Reengineering US patent law with the America Invents Act Patent marking Marking a product as covered by one or more patents is an important responsibility of patent owners if they wish to obtain the full extent of damages that could be available for acts of patent infringement. These patent markings typically appear as the small type declaring a product to be “patent pending\" or protected by a patent number. Failing to comply with the marking statute can be quite costly. For example, a company\'s failure to properly mark its patented products in one case resulted in a reduction of more than $16 million from a damages award.¹ The AIA made two significant changes to patent marking. First, it created the option of marking a product with \"patent” or “pat.\" with an internet website address identifying the applicable patents. This so-called virtual marking provides patent owners with much more flexibility in satisfying and managing their patent marking obligations. Second, the AIA essentially eliminated a raft of \"false marking\" lawsuits that had been filed against deep-pocketed patent owners in recent years for failing to remove expired patents from patent markings. This was accomplished by requiring the plaintiff to suffer a \"competitive injury\" as a result of the false marking and creating a safe harbor for listing expired patents. Expansion of prior user defense The AIA expanded the prior user defense to all patents issued on or US Patent and Trademark Office. 32 Wikimedia commons; Coolcaesar.) after September 16, 2011. To take advantage of the defense, an accused infringer must have commercially used the technology, in good faith, for at least one year before the earlier of the effective filing date of the claimed invention or the date on which the claimed invention was publicly disclosed by the inventor. The defense is personal in nature and it may not be licensed, assigned, or transferred, except in connection with the sale of \"the entire enterprise or line of business to which the defense relates.\" The defense also is limited to the same production volume(s) and location(s) where the subject product was made before the patent\'s effective filing date. Thus, the defense does not cover a new manufacturing plant or increased production numbers. Another significant AIA change to the prior use defense is the creation of a so-called university exception. Under this exception, a prior use defense may not be asserted if the claimed invention was, at the time the invention was made, owned or subject to an obligation of assignment to either an institution of higher education or a technology transfer organization affiliated with such an educational institution. Unlike the prior user defense, the university exception attaches to the patent itself and may be licensed or assigned, which may enhance the value of such patents and thereby enhance the compensation to the university. This may be an additional incentive for companies to engage universities when conducting research in a field that is active among competitors. Furthermore, when licensing a university\'s technology, a company also might wish to license the exception right. Patent challenge changes effective September 12, 2012 Supplemental examination A patent owner may request supplemental examination of a patent so the USPTO can consider, reconsider, or correct information believed to be relevant to the patent. Supplemental examination was created primarily to offer a relatively quick way to address potential \"issues\" a patent owner discovers prior to asserting a patent in litigation to avoid allegations of inequitable conduct or at least reduce the possible factual bases for inequitable conduct allegations. The concept of inequitable conduct arises because patent applicants have a duty of candor and good faith to the USPTO, which includes, for example, an obligation to disclose material prior art known by the applicant. An inequitable conduct allegation is of particular concern, because, if proved, all the claims of the patent will be unenforceable. In fact, inequitable conduct in procuring a patent can render all related patents unenforceable as well. In contrast, invalidity based on, for example, anticipation is determined on a claim-by-claim basis. Therefore, even if the broadest claim is determined to be invalid, a claim of narrower scope may continue to be valid and infringed. As with the change to best mode, supplemental examination was created to address a systemic concern of inequitable conduct allegations being made in almost all patent litigations, which significantly increased costs and duration, despite the fact that the defense usually was unsuccessful. Now, if a patent owner discovers that a prior art reference was known to the inventors but not disclosed to the USPTO, the reference may be disclosed as part of a request for supplemental examination, and it will be considered by the USPTO. The USPTO will make a determination as to whether the patent needs to be reexamined within three months of receiving the supplemental examination request. Even if the USPTO determines that reexamination is not warranted, the failure to disclose the reference when the application is examined by the USPTO can no longer be a basis for inequitable conduct. That said, patent attorneys have expressed concerns that the supplemental examination request itself could be a basis for an inequitable conduct allegation. The Federal Circuit (which has exclusive jurisdiction over appeals in patent cases) beat Congress to the punch on addressing the issue of widespread use of inequitable conduct claims in patent litigation. Its Therasense² decision imposed www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 a much more stringent standard for proving inequitable conduct. As a result, utilization of supplemental examination likely will be rare, especially because of the potential risks and its relatively high cost-the USPTO fee is $4,400 for the request and $12,100 if a reexamination is ordered. Moreover, preparing the request and conducting a reexamination will involve significant attorney costs. Inter Partes Review Most types of examination in the USPTO are ex parte, that is, only between the applicant and the USPTO. Prior to the AIA, there was a procedure referred to as \"Inter Partes Reexamination\" in which a patent challenger also participated. The AIA replaced Inter Partes Reexamination with Inter Partes Review. Like the predecessor procedure, Inter Partes Review is limited to addressing the validity of an issued patent only with respect to prior art patents and printed publications. The AIA made two significant changes to Inter Partes Review procedures. First, the threshold for instituting the procedure was raised from a “significant new question of patentability” to a reasonable likelihood of success that the petitioner would prevail. This higher standard has decreased the number of decisions to grant requests from 95 percent to 88 percent during US FY 2013 and 75 percent during US FY2014. Second, the time for filing a petition was substantially limited. Specifically, under the old procedure, a petition could be filed at any time, even well into a patent infringement lawsuit, whereas a petition under the new procedure must be filed: • After the postgrant review period (see below), which is the later of the end of the period to petition for postgrant review or the termination of a postgrant review; • Before the petitioner files a Declaratory Judgment action alleging invalidity of the patent; and • No later than one year after being served with a patent infringement complaint. Although the threshold was raised, the inter partes review has become an often used tool for challenging the Table 1. Fact pattern Applicant A made an invention on April 1, 2013, and filed an application October 1, 2013, claiming the invention. Applicant B independently made the same invention two months after Inventor A on June 1, 2013. Applicant B publicly disclosed the invention on September 1, 2013, one month before Applicant A\'s application was filed. Applicant B filed an application on December 1, 2013, two months after Applicant A\'s application was filed. Outcome under the first-to-invent regime Applicant A is entitled to the patent because he/she invented first and Applicant B\'s B\'s public disclosure was less than one year before Applicant A\'s filing date. Outcome under the first-tofile-or-disclose regime Applicant B is entitled to the patent because his/her public disclosure, which occurred before Applicant A\'s filing date, is prior art to Applicant A\'s application and removes Applicant A\'s application from being prior art to Applicant B\'s application. validity of a patent. In fact, USPTO is handling more than twice as many reviews as it anticipated when first implementing the law. For example, for fiscal year 2014, the USPTO estimated it would accept 450 reviews but it is on track to accept nearly 1000. One likely reason for high number is that 95 percent of the claims considered have been held to be invalid. This high invalidation rate is due, at least in part, to the fact that that the USPTO uses a \"broadest reasonable interpretation\" standard when construing the claim terms whereas a court would use a narrower \"ordinary and customary meaning\" standard. With a broader claim construction, it is more likely that one or more prior art references would be found to anticipate or render obvious the claimed invention. Postgrant review Postgrant review is a new procedure for the USPTO to review validity of issued patents on any ground, not just prior art. A petition for postgrant review must be filed within nine months of the patent being granted. For the USPTO to grant the petition and institute a postgrant review, the petitioner must show either: • More likely than not that at least one claim is unpatentable; or • The petition raises a novel or unsettled legal question that is important to other patents or applications. In the event the petition is granted, the USPTO is supposed to reach a final decision on the postgrant review within one year, which is very quick for a procedure of this type. Despite several advantages compared with challenging the validity of American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org Outcome under a true first-to-file regime Neither Applicant A nor Applicant B is entitled to a patent because Applicant public disclosure is prior art to both applications. a patent in the courts (chief among them speed and cost), there are issues associated with inter partes and postgrant reviews that should be considered before they are pursued. First, a patent challenger is estopped, or prevented, from bringing another proceeding in the USPTO or to the courts based on any ground that was raised, or reasonably could have been raised, in the postgrant review. This is a significant concern because patent owners and their attorneys tend to be leery of pursuing administrative remedies at the expense of limiting their ability to seek judicial remedies. Second, if the patent owner has a pending related application, the owner can concede the more challenging inter partes or post-grant review and choose to fight the same unpatentability arguments anew in ex parte prosecution of the pending related application. First-to-file change effective March 16, 2013 Shifting the US to a so-called first-to-file jurisdiction on March 16, 2013, was the AIA\'s most fundamental change to US patent law. Prior to that date, the US patent system was a \"first-to-invent\" regime that primarily depended on dates of invention rather than patent application filing dates. In general, this means that between two persons claiming the same invention, the patent will be awarded to the one who filed an application first, even if the other was the first to invent. Changing the rules for what is considered prior art Although the change eliminated many complex legal issues relating to 33 Reengineering US patent law with the America Invents Act the date of invention, it necessitated extensive changes to what is considered prior art to a US patent application. The AIA expanded what is considered prior art in some respects and narrowed it in others. For example, the AIA narrowed the prior art by: • Removing from the prior art disclosures made by fewer than all of the listed inventors; • Removing \"prior knowledge\" and \"nonpublic uses\" of the invention by another party from the prior art; and • Applying the prior art exception for inventions made by coworkers and that result from joint research agreements to novelty and obviousness. On the other hand, the AIA expanded the prior art by: Making printed publications, public uses, and sales of the invention by others prior art if they occurred any time before the effective filing date of an application; and . Including public uses and sales of an invention that occur outside the US in the prior art; and . Making a Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) application that designates US prior art as of the date it was effectively filed regardless of the language in which it was published. The foregoing examples of AIA changes are by no means exhaustive. A determination as to whether a particular reference constitutes prior art to a particular patent application must be done on a case-by-case basis. A not quite first-to-file system Although it is common to refer to the US as a first-to-file jurisdiction, the AIA did not create a true or strict firstto-file regime like the one that exists in Europe. That is because Congress carried over a significantly modified version of the one-year grace period from the pre-AIA first-to-invent regime. What is your IP IQ? This one-year grace period allowed applicants to obtain a patent even if they publicly disclosed their invention before filing the application if the application was filed within one year after the disclosure. The grace period was significantly modified by the AIA. An applicant\'s less-than-one-yearearlier public disclosure is not prior art against the applicant, and it removes from the prior art all less-than-oneyear-earlier public disclosures and applications of the same invention made or filed by another. As such, the current regime is better described as a \"first-tofile-or-disclose\" system. The scenario displayed in Table 1 helps illustrate the changes to the US system and the differences of both compared with a strict first-to-file regime. Notwithstanding the displayed scenario, the outcome of an actual application of the AIA grace period, in particular the ability to potentially remove prior art, is far from certain. It is highly unlikely that the two independently developed inventions and the disclosures thereof would be essentially identical, but the AIA grace period applies only to the extent the disclosed subject matter is the same. Therefore, until such time as the courts interpret and apply the new law, we will not know, for example, what effect minimal or even obvious variations in disclosures may have on an outcome. For example, a person, upon learning of your disclosure, may also make a disclosure regarding an obvious variant of your disclosed invention before you get around to filing your application. This obvious variant disclosure would be prior art to your application. Although it would not prevent you from obtaining a patent with claims of a scope limited to your disclosure, it may prevent you from obtaining the full breadth of claim scope to which you otherThe USPTO offers an Intellectual Property Awareness Assessment, which was developed in conjunction with the National Institute of Standards and Technology/Manufacturing Extension Partnership (NIST/MEP). The assessment allows users to determine their intellectual property awareness. When they have completed the assessment, users receive customized training materials. Find details at www.uspto.gov/inventors/assessment/start.html. 34 wise would have been entitled. Thus, the safest way to view the AIA grace period is that it is limited to your lessthan-one-year-earlier public disclosures rather than as a mechanism to remove other people\'s disclosures from being prior art to your application. Regardless of the availability of the grace period, if at all possible, inventors should avoid making public or nonconfidential disclosures before filing their patent application. If, however, an unintentional disclosure is made, it should be followed promptly by filing an application. On the other hand, if there is a decision to intentionally disclose before filing a situation that may face a university researcher—it is advisable to disclose all the subject matter pertaining to the invention to maximize the benefit of the grace period. Protecting an invention with trade secret and patent law The principles set forth in the Metalizing Engineering³ decision in conjunction with the pre-AIA prevented inventors from commercializing an invention in a nonpublic or secret manner for more than one year before filing a patent application. Therefore, an owner of an invention that could be exploited secretly had one year to make an irreversible decision-seek patent protection or attempt to keep it a trade secret. However, according to the Congressional Record, the AIA \"was drafted in part to do away with precedent under current law that private offers for sale or private uses or secret processes may be deemed patentdefeating prior art.\" Congress wanted to stop an inventor from secretly exploiting an invention for an unlimited period of time before filing a patent application. Thus, the AIA allows for the secret exploitation by the patentee, and it preserves possible patent protection for innovations that are confidentially given to consumers to use for a trial period. It should be noted that foreign patent laws may find information publicly accessible and, therefore, available as prior art, even if the commercialization was subject to a nondisclosure agreement. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 An inventor should be cautious in deciding to adopt this approach. There is some concern that this aspect of the AIA may be inconsistent with the Patent and Copyright Clause of the US Constitution. For example, in Pennock v. Dialogue, the US Supreme Court expressly disapproved of an inventor profiting from his non-publicly-disclosed invention for a long period “and then, and then only, when the danger of competition should force him to secure the exclusive right, he should be allowed to take out a patent, and thus exclude the public from any further use than what should be derived under it during [the patent term.]\" To allow such conduct \"would materially retard the progress of science and the useful arts, and give a premium to those who should be least prompt to communicate their discoveries.\" As a result, until such time as the propriety of this AIA change is acknowledged by the courts, choosing to secretly exploit an invention for more than one year before seeking patent protection involves the risk that the inventor\'s patent might be invalid. Conclusion The AIA was widely described by its proponents in Congress, the Administration, industry, and academia as bringing the US patent system into the 21st century by aligning it more closely with other patent systems in the world and eliminating uncertainty associated with a first-to-invent regime. Although true to a certain extent, it should be evident that the changes to US patent law were so extensive that the AIA also created significant uncertainty around several previously well-established principles of US patent law. The key to adjusting to, and thriving under, this new legal framework is to be aware of the changes, be proactive in order to take advantage when appropriate, and be mindful of the potential long-term consequences associated with choosing to utilize presently untested changes. About the author Steve Ritchey is a patent and intellectual property attorney at Thompson Coburn LLP, St. Louis, Mo. He earned his BS in ceramic engineering at Iowa AIA best practices By Steve Ritchey The changes made in shifting the US from the first-to-invent regime that had been in place for 226 years were substantial and sometimes unclear. The full effects of the changes probably will not be known until applicable patents are issued and litigated, which means it likely will be eight to 10 years before we begin to get direction from the courts. Therefore, what best practices can inventors, applicants, and companies adopt or continue under the AIA? Consider implementing a virtual patent marking system This is likely to be a more efficient and less costly manner of appropriately marking your patented products. Also, an effective patent marking system allows a patent owner to obtain damages for infringing acts that occurred before an infringer received actual notice of infringement. Monitor the art closely Be aware of commercial activities of competitors, scientific journals, symposiums, and published patent applications inside and outside the US. Knowledge of the art is important for facilitating the preparation and prosecution your patent applications. Moreover, closely monitoring the art will make it possible for you to timely institute certain USPTO proceedings, such as a derivation action, an Inter Partes Review, or a postgrant review. Utilize prior art exceptions In addition to the normal benefits associated with an extensive knowledge of the relevant art, closely monitoring the art may allow you to utilize certain exceptions to remove references from the prior art to your application by acquiring ownership of an earlier-filed application or executing a joint research agreement before the effective date of your application. Keep detailed records of research activities and disclosures Do not assume that because the US has switched to a \"first-to-file\" system that you can throw out your detailed lab notebooks from years ago. Instead, continue to keep detailed records about research activities and disclosures (when, where, by, and to whom). These State University. Contact Ritchey at sritchey@thompsoncoburn.com or 314-552-6000. References ¹Versata Software Inc. v. SAP America Inc., Civ. No. 2:07-CV-153 CE, (E.D. Tex. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org records may be useful to: • Establish that a disclosure you made was about an independently developed invention and, therefore, qualifies as prior art to a competitor\'s application; • Defend against a charge that the invention in your earlier-filed application was derived from another with a later-filed application; or • Support a prior commercial use defense. Avoid public and confidential prefiling disclosures Notwithstanding the above-described grace period, if at all possible, it is more important than ever to file a patent application before disclosing your invention publicly or even pursuant to a confidentiality agreement. Increase provisional application filings File provisional applications early and often as advances are made and prior to any disclosure. Because it is now a race to the USPTO, you may wish to have your attorney immediately file a detailed, enabling invention disclosure prepared by the inventor(s) as a provisional application and file a follow-up attorney-prepared provisional application as soon as possible thereafter. Avoid intervening disclosures Because many provisional applications are filed early, it is common for the commercially relevant embodiments of an invention to change as the invention is developed. Thus, even if you have filed a provisional application, avoid making disclosures about your invention until after the nonprovisional application is filed. Do not necessarily race to the patent office The expansion of the prior commercial user defense along with the described elimination of the bar against a patentee from practicing an invention for extended periods before seeking patent protection-seems to have substantially mitigated the potentially negative consequences of not filling a patent application for inventions that can be secretly exploited. In other words, if it makes more sense from a business perspective to confidentially use or test your product before filing, do not be afraid to discuss that option with your patent attorney. Not everyone has to burn rubber to the patent office. Sept. 9, 2011). 2Therasense Inc. v. Becton Dickinson & Co., 649 F.3d 1276 (Fed. Cir. 2011) (en banc). Metallizing Engineering Co. v. Kenyon Bearing & Auto Parts, 153 F.2d 516, 520 (2nd Cir. 1946). *Pennock v. Dialogue, 27 U.S. 1, 19 (1829). 35 Strength increase of silica glass fibers by surface stress relaxationA new mechanical strengthening method A new method for strengthening silica glass fibers is independent of thickness and composition. By Peter J. Lezzi and Minoru Tomozawa Air + N₂ flow 500°C 1cm <5 mm cm Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the system used to spot heat-treat bare silica glass fiber held under tensile stress. (Credit: Lezzi, RPI.) Pristine ristine glasses have extremely high mechanical strength, but surface flaws reduce the strength of practical glass products. However, glasses can be made mechanically stronger by forming a compres sive residual stress on the surface by thermal tempering or through ion-exchange. Thermal tempering involves heating a glass product to near the glass softening temperature followed by rapid cooling.¹ This process produces a temperature gradient with a \"cool\" surface and a \"hot\" interior that contracts relative to the surface. The contraction induces a residual compressive stress on the surface at room temperature. Another method is ion-exchange, also called chemical tempering, in which glasses containing smaller alkali ions, e.g., Na+, are exchanged in a molten salt bath for larger alkali ions, e.g., K*+.² Forcing larger ions into the glass structure creates a compressive residual stress. Although effective, both processes have limitations. Tempering requires the product to be of finite thickness of a few millimeters to achieve the necessary temperature gradient, and ion-exchange works only for compositions that contain alkali ions. This research demonstrates an alternative method for forming compressive residual surface stress in pure silica glass fibers based on surface stress relaxation. A subcritical (less than the fracture strength) tensile stress is applied at a temperature below the glass transition temperature and in the presence of water vapor. Upon releasing the applied tensile stress, a compressive stress forms on the surface. Tomozawa et al.³ proposed this strengthening mechanism previously and evaluated the extent of surface residual stress formation using a fiber-bending method. Unlike other strengthening mechanisms, it is independent of glass thickness and glass composition. The present research continues the investigation and presents strength data of silica glass fibers heat-treated at various temperatures under various tensile stresses. Strengthening silica glass fiber Glass fiber (Suprasil II with plastic coating, Heraeus, Hanau, Germany) specimens had a 150-mm gauge length and a 125-μm diameter. The plastic coating was removed from a 5-cm section in the middle of the specimens with sulfuric acid. A universal testing machine (Model 4204, Instron, Danvers, Mass.) was used to apply tensile stresses of 1, 2, or 3 GPa to the fibers at a loading rate of 100 MPa/s. While held at constant stress, a 1-cm central portion of the bare fiber was heated for 60 s using a heated nitrogen gun, as shown in Figure 1, to 100°C, 200°C, 300°C, 400°C, or 500°C. After 60 s, the gas gun was removed, and the tension unloaded. Two-point bend tests were used to study the effect of heat treatment on fiber strength of the 1-cm-long heat-treated section of the fibers using a two-point bend apparatus with grooved faceplates (Fiber Sigma, Flemington, N.J.). For comparison, the failure strain of some fibers that were untreated and fibers that were heat-treated under zero stress also were measured. 36 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 In(-In(1-F)) 10% 5% m-9 m-10 m-10 m-12 50% 99% 90% Cumulative failure probability No stress 1-GPa stress 2-GPa stress 3-GPa stress -As-received Failure stress tension (GPa) Predicted by nonlinear elastic model Maximum predicted strength achieved As-received strength Failure strain (%) 1% 8 9 10 11 Figure 2. Failure strain of 125-μm-diameter silica fibers measured by two-point bend testing after they were heat-treated with and without an applied stress, at 200°C for 60 s. The dotted line represents the measured failure strains of as-received fibers. The failure strain decreased precipitously with increased treatment temperature for fibers heat-treated above room temperature and under no load for 60 s. Fibers heat-treated under tensile loading showed an increased failure strain when tested by bending compared with the failure strain of those heated at the same temperature under no load. This can be seen in Figure 2, a Weibull plot of the failure strains of fibers first heated at 200°C under various tensile stress conditions, followed by two-point bend testing. This testing method definitively showed that surface stress relaxation during a 60-s heat treatment made the fiber stronger beyond the as-received strength. Specifically, the failure strain of 200°C, 2- and 3-GPa treatments, as well as the 300°C, 3-GPa treatment exceeded that of the as-received, untreated fiber. Converting the failure strain measured by two-point bending directly into a failure stress is complex, because the elasticity of silica glass is nonlinear. However, Gupta and Kurkjian³ used available experimental elasticity data to evaluate the modulus of silica and E-glass as a function of strain. Based on their analysis, Figure 3 shows the expected stress-strain behavior of silica glass. The failure strains observed for samples treated at 200°C under 3 GPa exceeded 8%. Based on the trend shown in Figure 3, a failure (Credit: Lezzi, RPI.) Failure strain in two-point bend (%) Figure 3. The solid line represents a nonlinear elastic model for silica. The (•) symbol represents the approximate strength of as-received silica glass fiber, and the (*) symbol represents a predicted maximum failure stress achieved after a 200°C, 3-GPa treatment in an atmosphere of ~6-torr H₂O, estimated from the two-point bend failure strain. strain corresponding to approximately ~7-8-GPa tensile strength for silica fibers at room temperature in air (22°C and 20%-30% relative humidity) was obtained, compared with the asreceived tensile strength of 5.2 GPa. Evaluating residual surface compressive stress Bend in tensile stressed and sliced fibers It was necessary to test whether fibers heated under uniaxial tensile load form a thin residual compressive stress layer upon removal of the load. Thus, longitudinal fiber samples were polished in half such that their cross sections became nearly uniform semicircles. A residual compressive stress on the outer rounded surface would cause the polished fiber ends to curve toward the flat polished surface. Polished fibers prepared under three conditions were examined: no treatment, heat-treated at 500°C for 60 s without load, and heat-treated at 500°C for 60 s under a 1-GPa load. Of the fibers reduced in size by half, only those that had been heat-treated under a load showed curvature, indicating that compression existed on the outer surface of American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org the fiber. The bottom image of Figure 4 is an optical micrograph of a fiber heated at 500°C under a 1-GPa load that shows a typical bending result. For comparison, it is shown with corresponding straight fibers, one untreated and one heated but without tensile stress treatments. The heated region of the bent fiber was painted black after polishing to make it more distinct in the micrograph. FTIR measurement Applied stress affects glass structure, and the magnitude of the effect is proportional to Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) reflection and Raman peak shifts. For example, Tomozawa et al.6 Nontreated fiber Heated under no stress Heated region Heated under 1-GPa load 2000 μm Credit: Lezzi, RPI.) Figure 4. Optical micrographs of polished silica fibers under various conditions. The straight black line serves as a guide for eyes to see the curvature: (top) untreated and polished fiber showing no curvature; (middle) fiber heated at 500°C for 60 s under no load showing no curvature; and (bottom) polished fiber heated at 500°C under 1-GPa load for 60 s showing curvature from residual compressive stress. 37 (Credit: Lezzi, RPI.) Strength increase of silica glass fibers by surface stress relaxation ... 1120 cm¹ peak position 1122.44 1122.2 1122.0 1121.81121.6112141121.2 1121.0 11 11208 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 Tensile stress applied during heat treatment (GPa) Figure 5. Infrared reflection measurements for silica glass fibers subjected to 60-s heat treatment at 500°C under varying tensile loads. (Legend: see Figure 2.) The 1120-cm-1 peak position shifts to increasingly higher wavenumbers when heat-treated under higher tensile stresses. A peak shift in the positive direction indicates that the residual stress on the surface of the fiber is compressive. and Hepburn measured FTIR reflection peak wavenumbers on silica glass optical fibers in an elastically bent configuration, which allowed them access to the tensile and compressive sides. They found that the 1120-cm-¹ reflection band shifted to a higher wavenumber proportional to the applied compressive stress and to a lower wavenumber portional to the applied tensile stress. proIR reflection measurements probed how the 1120-cm-¹ peak position was affected by heat treatment at 500°C for 60s under various tensile stresses. To separate any effects that thermal history may have from the stress effect, some fibers also were heat-treated in an identical manner, but without applied stress. The IR reflection spectrum was collected in the range of 1500 to 600 cm-¹ because all necessary silica structural bands fell within this region, and data points were averaged over 500 scans. Figure 5 shows the resulting peak positions as a function of tensile stress applied during heat treatment. The 1120 cm¹ peak shifted in the compres sive direction (larger wavenumber) when a larger tensile stress was applied during the heat treatment. This confirms that the residual stress formed is compressive and scales in magnitude with the applied stress. The fiber-polishing and IR experiments show that a thin residual compressive stress layer forms on the surface 38 of fibers heat-treated under tensile load in the presence of water vapor. After a heat treatment of 60s, this compressive layer strengthens the fiber compared with a fiber heat-treated under no load. Further, the observed failure strain increased with increased tensile stress applied during the heat treatment, indicating that the surface compressive residual stress contributes to strengthening. The magnitude of the failure strain (or strength) increase was proportional to the applied tensile stress. Surface stress relaxation process How does surface stress relaxation occur even at such low temperatures when glass is heat-treated in an atmosphere containing water vapor? When an oxide glass is heat-treated in an atmosphere containing water vapor, molecular water enters into the glass surface. Increasing water content in oxide glasses decreases the glass viscosity,8,9 especially at lower temperatures. Because viscosity is proportional to the stress and structural relaxation times, one can expect that viscosity reduction from water entry can promote both stress and structural relaxation processes of the glasses. Experimentally it was demonstrated that surface structural relaxation took place at a faster rate than bulk structural relaxation in the presence of water vapor, presumably because of a lowered viscosity at the surface. 10 Analogously, surface stress relaxation can be expected to take place more rapidly than bulk stress relaxation if a glass is heat-treated in an atmosphere containing water vapor. Because the stress relaxation time of a glass is shorter than the structural relaxation time at the same temperature by approximately one order of magnitude,\" one would expect surface stress relaxation to take place faster than surface structural relaxation at a constant temperature under constant water-vapor pressure. For this reason, it appears that surface stress relaxation is the dominant relaxation process occurring in silica fibers under high tensile loads in the of presence water vapor at low temperatures. The role of water Water can exist in silica glass as molecular water (H2O) and hydroxyl groups (OH). The mobile species, molecular water, can diffuse into and react with the silica to produce immobile hydroxyl by the reaction H₂O + =Si-O-Si= 2 =Si-OH. At high enough temperatures, the reaction is fast and reaction equilibrium is established with an equilibrium constant, K = [OH]²/[H₂O], where [OH] and [H₂O] are the concentrations of hydroxyl and molecular water, respectively. 12,13 This reaction shifts strongly to the right at high temperatures, evidenced by the fact that commercial glasses made by melting at high temperatures contain exclusively hydroxyl.¹4 However, the reaction appears sluggish at low temperatures, and a large amount of unreacted, mobile, molecular H₂O can be observed after exposing a silica glass to water vapor.12 This small amount of free molecular water can diffuse quickly through the structure, unrestricted by the reaction equilibrium. It has a dramatic effect on mechanical properties as well as stress and structural relaxation behavior of the glass. 3,9,15 The exact mechanism by which molecular water in silica glass promotes the structural and stress relaxation is not known, but one can speculate the mechanism using recent results of computer simulations. Bakos et al.16 showed that two H₂O molecules inside large voids of a silica network may break up to produce an OH¯ and an H₂O* with an energy barrier of 1.5 eV. The hydronium ion (H₂O+) has an excess proton that then is free to jump to other water species, or through the silica network at appropriate sites. The oxygens in Si-OSi bridges, strained ones in particular, are ideal silica network sites for freeproton absorption and can temporarily www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 form energetically favorable bridging OH groups before jumping to new sites. 17-19 The formation of such complexes results in a change of the Si-OSi bond angle, which can be observed by an FTIR peak shift. For example, consider the case of surface stress relaxation of silica glass at low temperatures in the presence of water vapor, where the majority of water species entering the glass remains as molecular water. With the initial application of a load, the Si-O bonds throughout the material become strained. Free protons are formed when two H₂O molecules come together inside of a glass, and they have the ability to jump to oxygen in the strained Si-O-Si bonds, using free H₂O molecules as intermediate jumping sites if necessary. The effect of proton interaction with the strained bonds leads to the bond angle change, relaxing the bond to a less strained state. When the proton jumps to the next site, an intermediate H₂O molecule, or the next strained bond, the previous bond is left in the newly relaxed state. Physically, what is measured as the surface stress relaxation \"diffusion\" process is a measure of the rate at which this bond relaxation propagates from the surface of the sample into the bulk. At the present time, it is unclear what fraction of these strained Si-O bonds must be relaxed in order to effectively relieve the macroscopically applied stress. Acknowledgments Peter Lezzi is a PhD candidate in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. His advisor, Minoru Tomozawa, is professor in the department. Parts of this research were supported by NSF grants DMR-0804043, DMR-0844014, and DMR-1265100. Lezzi\'s graduate study is supported by Corning Inc. The authors would like to thank Charles Kurkjian and Thierry Blanchet for discussion. Contact Lezzi at lezzip@rpi.edu. References \'R. Gardon, \"Thermal tempering of Glass\"; pp. 146-216 in Glass: Science and Technology, Vol. 5, Elasticity and Strength in Glasses. Edited by D.R. Uhlmann and N.J. Kreidl. Academic Press, New York, 1980. ²M.E. Nordberg, E.L. Mochel, H.M. Garfinkel, and J.S. Olcott, \"Strengthening by ion exchange,\" J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 47, 215 (1964). ³M. Tomozawa, P.J. Lezzi, R.W. Hepburn, T.A. Blanchet, and D. Cherniak, \"Surface stress relaxation and resulting residual stress in glass fibers: A new mechanical strengthening mechanism of glasses,\" J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 358, 2650 (2012). M.J. Matthewson, C.R. Kurkjian, and S.T. Gulati, \"Strength measurement of optical fibers in bending,\" J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 69,815 (1986). 5P.K. Gupta and C.R. Kurkjian, “Intrinsic failure and non-linear elastic behavior of glasses,\" J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 351, 2324 (2005). \'M. Tomozawa, J.-W. Hong, and R.W. Hepburn, \"IR Investigation of the Structure of Silica Glass Fibers,\" Glass Sci. Technol., 75 [C1] 262 (2002). \'R.W. Hepburn, PhD thesis, \"Characterization of surface structural relaxation of vitreous silica,\" Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N.Y., 2002. 8H. Scholze, \"Gases and water in glass,\" Glass Ind., 47, 546 (1966). \'G. Hetherington, K.H. Jack, and J.C. Kennedy, \"The viscosity of vitreous silica,\" Phys. Chem. Glasses, 5, 130 (1964). 10M. Tomozawa and R.W. Hepburn, \"Surface structural relaxation of silica glass: A possible mechanism of structural fatigue,\" J. NonCryst. Solids, 345-346, 449 (2004). 11C.T. Moynihan, pp.32-49 in Assignment of the glass transition. save ASTM STP 1249. Edited by Seyler. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa., 1994. 12R.H. Doremus, \"Diffusion of water in fused silica\"; p. 667 in Reactivity of Solids. Edited by J.W. Mitchell, R.C. DeVries, R.W. Roberts, and P. Cannon. Wiley, New York, 1969. 13Y. Zhang, E.M. Stolper, and G.J. Wasserburg, “Diffusion of a multi-species component and its role in the diffusion of water and oxygen in silicates,\" Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 103, 228 (1991). 14K.M. Davis and M. Tomozawa, \"Water diffusion into silica glass: Structural changes in silica glass and their effect on water solubility and diffusivity,\" J. Non-Cryst. Solids, 185, 203 (1995). 15M. Tomozawa, D.L. Kim, A. Agarwal, and K.M. Davis, \"Water diffusion and surface structural relaxation of silica glasses,\" J. NonCryst. Solids, 288, 73 (2001). 16T. Bakos, S.N. Rashkeev, and S.T. Pantelides, \"H₂O and O₂ molecules in amorphous SiO2: Defect formation and annihilation mechanisms,\" Phys. Rev. B., 69, 195206 (2004). 17G.K. Lockwood and S.H. Garofalini, \"Bridging oxygen as a site for proton adsorption on the vitreous silica surface,\" J. Chem. Phys., 131, 74703 (2009). 18K.L. Geisinger, G.V. Gibbs, and A. Navtrotsky, \"A molecular orbital study of bond length and angle variation in framework structures,\" Phys. Chem. Miner., 11, 266 (1985). 19Y. Xiao and A.C. Lasaga, \"Ab-initio quantum mechanical studies of the kinetics and mechanisms of silicate dissolution: H* (H₂O)* Catalysis,\" Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 58, 5379 (1994). the date November 3-6 Greater Columbus Convention Center | Columbus, Ohio USA th Conference on Glass Problems The glass industry\'s trusted conference for 75 years The 75th GPC is the largest glass manufacturing event in North America, attracting manufacturers & suppliers worldwide to exchange innovations & solutions. Learn from expert lectures and panel discussions on glass melting; refractories; process control & modeling; safety & emissions; raw materials & batching; energy efficiency; and more. Participate in one of the full day symposia: Hot Sensors: Instrumentation in Glass Manufacturing or Energy Productivity as a Competitive Edge in Glass Manufacturing. Enroll in an exclusive glass manufacturing short courses: Fundamentals of Batch and Furnace Operation, or Glass Furnace Designs and Furnace Operation - Modeling of Glass Melting & Combustion Processes and Advanced Furnace Control. Take advantage of significant exhibition and networking opportunities by reserving space at the event. Contact Mona Thiel at (614) 794-5834 or mthiel@ceramics.org. www.glassproblems conference.org Presented by the Glass Manufacturing Industry Council and Alfred University GMC Alfred University Glass Manufacturing industry Council\" American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org Endorsed by The American Ceramic Society Official journal on Glass Problems The American Ceramic Society f the Conference glass WORLDWIDE 39 Aachen, Germany | May 25-30, 2014 DGG-ACerS-GOMD 2014 www.dgg-gomd.org Organizers The American Ceramic Society www.ceramics.org Register now for the 1st Joint Meeting of DGG-ACerS-GOMD. This congress merges, for the first time, the Annual Meetings of the German Society of Glass Technology (DGG) and of the Glass & Optical Materials Division of The American Ceramic Society (ACerS-GOMD). Varshneya Frontiers of Glass Science Lecture Matthieu Micoulaut, professor, Université Pierre et Marie Curie (UPMC) Micoulaut Title: Reversibility in glasses Varshneya Frontiers of Glass Technology Lecture TJ Kiczenski, research associate, glass research group, Corning Incorporated Kiczenski Title: Advancing the understanding and utilization of glass relaxation in commercial applications Hayden Elliott Lezzi Stookey Lecture of Discovery Joseph S. Hayden, research fellow, research and technology development, Schott Title: Overcoming technical challenges and moving into the future with laser glass George W. Morey Award Stephen R. Elliott, Cambridge University Title: Chalcogenide phase-change materials: Past and future Norbert J. Kreidl Award Peter J. Lezzi, PhD student, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Title: Strength increase of silica glass fibers by surface stress relaxation: A new mechanical strengthening method Thank you sponsors! mossci CORPORATION CORNING PPG Coe College Applied Glass SCIENCE GOMD/DGG/Glass trend meetings Monday, May 26, 2014 Annual members\' meeting of DGG GOMD Executive Committee meeting Annual members\' meeting of HVG Tuesday, May 27, 2014 Glass Trend council meeting GOMD general business meeting 8 - 9:15 a.m. 8 - 9:15 a.m. 6:15 - 7:30 p.m. 5:45 - 7:45 p.m. 6-7 p.m. Technical programs and symposia chairs . . Advances in Fusion & Processing of Glass Energy Applications of Glass - Fundamentals & Application •Health, Medical, Biological Aspects - Fundamentals & Application • Fundamentals of the Glassy State & Amorphous Materials Optical Materials & Devices - Fundamentals & Application • Nuclear Waste Forms - Fundamentals & Application 2nd International Glass Fiber Symposium Conference location Eurogress Aachen Monheimsallee 48 D-52062 Aachen, Germany http://www.eurogress-aachen.de/ 40 40 www.ceramics.org www.ceramics.org/bioceramics2014 Innovations in Biomedical Materials: Focus on Ceramics July 30-August 1, 2014 | Hilton Columbus Downtown, Columbus, Ohio At the intersection of medical practitioners, materials researchers, manufacturers, and marketers. REGISTRATION OPEN! Sign up now to save. The America Ceramic Society www.ceramics.org Bioceramics 2014 brings together applied researchers, medical practitioners, and medical ceramic materials manufacturers and marketers to better develop emerging technologies, treatments, and products and devices. CALL FOR RAPID-FIRE PRESENTATIONS-Abstracts Due May 15th Participate in the inaugural rapid-fire presentation session on Wednesday, July 30, from 4:30 to 6 p.m. Presenters will give a two-minute preview of their poster prior to the welcome reception and poster session. In addition to the talk, presenters may use two PowerPoint slides to highlight their research. Technical program – Plenary: Healthcare Panel Discussion: Orthopedics I Panel Discussion: New Technologies - Plenary: Regulatory Environment Panel Discussion: Regulatory Panel Discussion: Radiotherapeutics – Plenary: Clinical Testing Panel Discussion: Clinical Testing Panel Discussion: Bioceramic Testing - Plenary: Surgical Trends Panel Discussion: Orthopedics II Panel Discussion: Dental Applications Advisory Board Charanpreet S. Bagga, Prosidyan Inc. Markus Reiterer, Medtronic Inc. Roger Narayan, MD, University of North Carolina and NC State George Wicks, Wicks Consulting Services Greg Pomrink, NovaBone Products LLC Larry Hench, Florida Institute of Technology Safdar Khan, MD, The Ohio State University James H. Adair, Pennsylvania State University Organizer Steven Jung, chief technology officer, Mo-Sci Corporation 573-364-2338 American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 41 Innovations in Biomedical Materials: Focus on Ceramics Sponsors Program moosci CORPORATION Wednesday, July 30, 2014 4 to 5:30 p.m. Opening Session - Rapid-Fire Presentations 5:30 to 7 p.m. Welcome Reception & Poster Session Thursday, July 31, 2014 8:30 to 9:30 a.m. Plenary Session I Florida Institute of Technology Affordable Healthcare? The Role of Bioceramic Technology Larry Hench, professor, Florida Institute of Technology, and inventor of Bioglass® 10 to 11 a.m. Orthopedics | Panel Discussion This session discusses new and emerging bioceramic technologies and technologies that are in the commercial pipeline. It will focus on bioceramics with orthopedic applications, including cranial, facial, orthopedic, bone void fillers, and spinal applications. Individual panelists will discuss the many uses of bioactive glass for the treatment of bone injuries and bone defects in the body. It will explore material properties and forms along with dynamic bioactive bone graft material that can be molded into desired shapes for implantation. Confirmed Panelists: · Zehra Tosun, senior R&D biomedical engineer, NovaBone Products LLC Charanpreet S. Bagga, president and CEO, Prosidyan Inc. ⚫ Markus Reiterer, senior principal scientist, Corp. Core Technologies, Medtronic Inc. ⚫ Larry Hench, professor, Florida Institute of Technology 11 a.m. to 12 p.m. New Technologies Panel Discussion This panel discussion focuses on emerging technologies containing bioceramics covering wound care, bone grafting, drug delivery and coatings, including research to increase the lifetime of biomedical implants and dental materials. Specific topics include emerging topics of bioactive glasses, including new frontiers in wound care and bone grafting. In addition, drug delivery will be discussed, including nanoparticulate alternatives for drug delivery, porous silica microspheres for medical applications, and coating technologies for medical implants. Confirmed Panelists: · James H. Adair, CSO, Keystone Nano; professor, Pennsylvania State University ⚫ George Wicks, president, Wicks Consulting Services Orville Bailey, president, Covalent Coatings Technologies LLC Jacob J. Stiglich, Ultramet Inc. NOVABONE 1:30 to 2:30 p.m. Plenary Session II The Current Regulatory Environment Glenn Stiegman, vice president, regulatory affairs, Musculoskeletal Clinical Regulatory Advisers LLC (MCRA) 3 to 4 p.m. Regulatory Panel Discussion This panel discussion focuses on the current regulatory environment, Food and Drug Administration trends, how to obtain and maintain compliance, patent trends, and protecting intellectual property. Confirmed Panelists: • Aditya Sukthankar, regulatory consultant, MDI Consultants Inc. • Tram Nguyen, partner, Monument IP Law Group · Glenn Stiegman, vice president, Regulatory Affairs, Musculoskeletal Clinical Regulatory Advisers LLC (MCRA) 4 to 5 p.m. Radiotherapeutics Panel Discussion Radiotherapeutics will discuss clinical efficacy of tenured products along with new treatment options from emerging technologies and applications. Panelists will discuss product development, materials requirements, properties of good radiotherapeutic materials, chemical durability, how to maximize specific activity, method of activation, and the right type of radioisotope. Confirmed Panelists: Mark Tann, associate professor of clinical radiology, Indiana University School of Medicine . Wayne Mullet, director of development, BTG International Canada Inc. · Delbert Day, Curators\' Professor Emeritus of materials science & engineering, Missouri University of Science and Technology Friday, August 1, 2014 8:30 to 9:30 a.m. Plenary Session III Clinical Testing Safdar Khan, MD, chief, Division of Spine, The Ohio State University 10 to 11 a.m. Clinical Testing Panel Discussion This panel discussion focuses on the efficacy of a multitude of products from a variety of medical fields and how these products may be improved to get an improved outcome. Panelists will cover preliminary and primary research, testing required for commercialization, and clinical trials. Confirmed Panelists: .Paul M. Weinberger, assistant professor, Georgia Regents University Ben Tempel, CEO, NanOphthalmics · Safdar Khan, MD, chief, Division of Spine, The Ohio State University 42 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 Program (continued) Friday, August 1, 2014 11 a.m. to 12 p.m. Bioceramic Testing Panel Discussion This panel discussion focuses on test methods currently used for evaluating bioceramics, especially in-vitro and cellular biology. The panelists also will discuss which animal models to use for acceptance by regulatory groups for specific indications of treatment. Confirmed Panelists: • David Greenspan, president, Spinode Consulting 1:30 to 2:30 p.m. Plenary Session IV Surgical Trends Hyun Bae, MD, surgeon, The Spine Institute 3:00 to 4:00 p.m. Orthopedics II Panel Discussion This follow-up session to Orthopedics I discusses new and emerging bioceramic technologies and technologies that are in the commercial pipeline. Individual panelists will discuss collagen ceramic products engineered to mimic the composition and pore structure of natural human bone along with bioactive bone graft materials that undergo a time-dependent surface modification upon implanting in living tissue eventually resulting in the formation of new bone. Confirmed Panelists: Sunil Saini, director, R&D, Integra John Brunelle, chief technology officer, BioStructures LLC David Hill, associate professor, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Georgia Regents University • Hyun Bae, MD, surgeon, The Spine Institute 4 to 5 p.m. Dental Applications Panel Discussion This panel discussion focuses on new and emerging bioceramic technologies that are in the commercial pipeline with dental applications. Confirmed Panelists: Carolyn Primus, Primus Consulting Bill Poulson, product manager, Biomet 3i Gregory Pomrink, vice president, research & development, NovaBone Products LLC Registration ACerS ACers Member plus membership renewal Nonmember On or before June 30, 2014 $595 $715 $715 After June 30, 2014 $745 $865 $865 ETT Speaker ACerS Emeritus/Senior Member Material Advantage Student Member Student: Not in Material Advantage Spouse/Companion $450 $450 $155 $195 $65 $600 $600 $230 $270 $65 Note: Registration includes welcome reception, conference dinner, two lunches, and breaks. Spouse/Companion registration includes welcome reception and conference dinner. Hotel Hilton Columbus Downtown Rates: Cutoff Date: 401 North High Street Single/Double: $159 July 8, 2014 Columbus, OH, 43215 USA Tel: 614-384-8600 American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 43 www.ceramics.org/cements 2014 5 th Advances in Cement-based Materials: Characterization, Processing, Modeling & Sensing REGISTER NOW AND SAVE! The 5th Advances in Cement-based Materials, hosted July 9-11, takes place at Tennessee Technological University in Cookeville, Tenn. Cements 2014 is organized by the Cements Division of ACerS and the Center for Advanced Cement-based Materials. Technical Program – Cement chemistry and nano/microstructure - Alternative cementitious materials - Rheology and advances in SCC - Smart materials and sensors - Advances in material characterization techniques ― Durability and lifecycle modeling - Advances in computational material science and chemo/mechanical modeling of cement-based materials Ceramic The American Society www.ceramics.org Program Chairs Benjamin Mohr, Program Co-Chair Tennessee Technological University Joseph J. Biernacki, Program Co-Chair Tennessee Technological University Cements Division Leadership Division Chair: Kyle Riding, Kansas State University Chair-Elect: Jeff Chen, Lafarge Research Center Secretary: Tyler Ley, Oklahoma State University Trustee: Joseph J. Biernacki, Tennessee Technological University 44 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 July 9-11, 2014 Tennessee Technological University | Cookeville, Tennessee Registration On or before May 15, 2014 After May 15, 2014 ACerS or ASM Member $230 $380 ACers Member with membership renewal $350 $500 Nonmember $350 $500 ACers Emeritus/Senior/Associate Member $185 $335 Student Member $55 $130 Student Nonmember $95 $170 Cements 2014 Della Roy Lecture Gartner Ellis Gartner, scientific director (chemistry), Lafarge Central Research Laboratory, France Title: 40 years a cement scientist - can this be sustainable? Abstract: Science is the study of nature, while engineering is one important aspect of the application of scientific theory to addressing the needs of society. The study of cement necessarily spans the two, because cement is a man-made material and is only made in large volumes because we need it for concrete engineering works. Thus, cement scientists mainly justify their existence on the grounds that they can make a difference to concrete engineering, which is one of the mainstays of modern society. This lecture will cover several aspects of my career in cement-related industrial research and will give some real examples of how a scientific approach can lead to technical innovations that, in turn, have the potential to improve the \"sustainability\" of concrete construction. Biography: Gartner has a PhD in physical chemistry from the University of Cambridge (1975). After three years as a higher scientific officer at the UK Department of the Environment\'s Building Research Establishment, he moved to the Portland Cement Association (Illinois, USA) in 1977, where he later became head of the Basic Research Section. In 1985, he joined the Central Research Laboratory of W. R. Grace & Co. in Columbia, Maryland, where he headed the Cement and Concrete Additives research group, under the direction of Jan Skalny. In 1996, he joined Lafarge Central Research Laboratory as director of the Cement-Admixture Interactions department, and in 2011, he was promoted to his current position. He is a Fellow of the American Ceramic Society and a former chairman of the Cements Division, as well as a recipient of the Brunauer Award in 1992. He is also a fellow of the Institute of Materials, Mining and Metallurgy (UK); a member of the American Chemical Society, Materials Research Society, and RILEM; and an associate editor of the Cement and Concrete Research Journal. He has published over 60 scientific articles and has over 30 patents. In a 40-year career spent mainly in industrial research and development laboratories, he has worked on many aspects of construction materials, including: life-cycle analysis of construction materials; energy efficiency of the cement manufacturing process; manufacture of artificial aggregates for concrete; methods of analysing and controlling toxic gas emissions from cement kilns; methods of analysing and controlling cement raw materials; development of novel functional and processing additions for cements; development of novel admixtures for concrete; and, most recently, development of novel hydraulic binders for concretes with lower carbon footprints. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 45 45 register now and save! 3RD INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON ELECTROSPINNING August 4-7, 2014 | Westin San Francisco | San Francisco, Calif. INTRODUCTION Luana Persano, Nanoscience Institute, National Research Council-CNR, Italy Electrospin 2014 will provide a platform for researchers, engineers, and students to exchange knowledge and advance the field of electrospinning, nanomaterials, and their applications. The conference topics will address theory; all materials, including polymers, metals, and ceramics; applications in energy storage and harvesting; raphy on organics and nanocomposites semiconductors, photonic filtration; materials for sustainability; biomedical applications; and more. Special focus will be given to the fast-growing field of ceramic nanomaterials. Register now to participate in this biennial event. PLENARY SPEAKERS II-Doo Kim, KAIST, department of materials science and engineering, Korea Kim received his PhD (2002) from the Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST). From 2003 to 2005, he was a postdoctoral fellow with Prof. Harry L. Tuller at MIT. He returned to KAIST as a senior research scientist, and in Feb. 2011, became a faculty member in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering. Dr. Kim\'s current research emphasizes controlled processing and characterization of functional nanofibers via electrospinning for practical applications in exhaled breath sensors and energy storage devices such as Li-ion, Li-S, and Li-Air batteries. Kim served as a conference chair at the 2012 International Conference on Electrospinning in Jeju, South Korea. He has published more than 113 articles and holds 122 patents. Kim is a deputy editor of the Journal of Electroceramics (Springer). Persano, who holds a PhD in innovative materials and technologies (2006), is currently staff researcher at the National Research Council-Nanoscience Institute. She has been a Marie-Curie fellow at the Foundation for Research & Technology-Hellas, Greece, and visiting scientist at Harvard University and University of Illinois. Her research interests include nanomanufacturing, conventional and soft lithogand piezoelectric devices, and electrospinning technology transfer. Since 2003, she has authored or coauthored 70 papers in refereed journals, book chapters, and one international patent. She has several oral and invited contributions to international conferences. Among other prizes, she received the \"CNR-Start-Cup\" award in 2010 and the \"Bellisario\" award as Young Talent in Industrial Engineering in 2011. Alexander Yarin, University of Illinois at Chicago, department of mechanical and industrial engineering, USA Biography: PhD-1980, DSc (Habilitation), 1989. Affiliations: senior research associate at The Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow (1977-1990); professor at the Technion-Israel Institute of Technology (1990-2006), and at the University of Illinois at Chicago, USA (2006present); Concurrently, professor at Korea University, Seoul, South Korea (2013-present). Fellow of the Center for Smart Interfaces at the Technical University of Darmstadt, Germany (2008-2012). Prof. Yarin is the author of three books, 10 book chapters, nearly 250 research papers, and six patents. He is an associate editor of the journal Experiments in Fluids and one of the three coeditors of \"Springer Handbook of Experimental Fluid Mechanics,\" 2007. The recent book by A.L. Yarin, B. Pourdeyhimi, and S. Ramakrishna is \"Fundamentals and Applications of Micro- and Nanofibers,\" Cambridge University Press (2014). www.ceramics.org/electrospin2014 46 www.ceramics.org American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 WHO SHOULD ATTEND Professionals in the academic field and industry should make their plans to attend. Newcomers to the field are highly welcome and will profit from highquality presentations from top scientists and engineers from around the world. Students will meet and learn from the best and have a chance to interact with companies that electrospin or fabricate nanomaterials. PROGRAM COMMITTEE • Il-Doo Kim, KAIST, Korea • Unyong Jeong, Yonsei University, Korea • Wolfgang Sigmund, University of Florida, USA • Younan Xia, Georgia Tech, USA • Andreas Greiner, University of Bayreuth, Germany ORGANIZERS Wolfgang Sigmund University of Florida 352-846-3343 wsigm@mse.ufl.edu SESSION TOPICS - Advances in electrospinning theory and modeling - Energy storage and harvesting with electrospun or sprayed materials - Novel developments in electrospinning and other nanofiber fabrication technologies - Ceramic and composite nanofibers - Polymer nanofibers - Biomedical applications of electrospun materials - Filtration and textiles - Electrospinning for green materials and sustainability HOTEL The Westin San Francisco Market Street 50 Third Street San Francisco, CA 94105 Younan Xia Georgia Tech 404-385-3209 yxia45@gatech.edu THE WESTIN MARKET STREET Registration Attendee One Day ACers Emeritus/Senior/Associate Member Student Spouse/Companion* On or before June 1, 2014 After June 1, 2014 $575 $725 $425 $575 $425 $575 $295 $370 $75 $75 Note: Registration includes two receptions, conference dinner, and breaks. * Includes only evening reception and dinner. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 47 Anniversary makes for a \'golden\' St. Louis/Refractory Ceramics Division meeting (Credit for all photos: ACerS.) 2 3 4 LO 5 6 velco Gunning Machi and Robots. 7 1 Kent Weisenstein helped found the St. Louis Section Symposium and has been at all 50 of them. He shared some thoughts and provided perspective on this successful event at the banquet. 2 A record crowd of 210 attended the St. Louis/RCD symposium. 3 Orville Hunter (left) presents the T.J. Planje Award to Jeffrey Smith. 4 Robert Crolius, retiring executive director of The Refractories Institute, shares a few parting thoughts with attendees. The St. Louis Section and the ACers Refractory Ceramics Division held their joint meeting in St. Louis, March 26-27, 2014. Besides celebrated: The 50th symposium on refractories and the centenary meeting of the ASTM Committee C08 on refractories. A record-breaking 210 people came from Germany, Brazil, Canada, Norway, Australia, Peru, Ecuador, France, and China, reflecting the global importance of the refractories industry and the industries it supports. The theme of this year\'s symposium was \"Refractory Bonding Systems.\" It covered everything from bond systems for monolithic castable refractories to dryout to incorporation of nanoscale colloidal silica and alumina in binder systems (the latter shows promise for developing flexible refractories). Missouri University of Science and Technology professor Jeffrey Smith received the T.J. Planje Award and traced his career through the people who helped guide him, beginning with an uncle who advised the young Smith to look into ceramic engineering as he was about to leave for college. The symposium banquet on Wednesday was a celebration of the two milestone anniversaries. Kent Weisenstein, one of the five founders of the Missouri Refractories Company (MORCO), gave a brief history of the symposium\'s 50 years and the people who have been key contributors to the industry and symposium. An avid sportsman (who still pitches for his softball team), he had commemorative baseballs signed by Whitey Herzog for refractory industry leaders, including Charles Semler, Mark Stett, and Richard Bradt. The RCD likens itself to a family. This year\'s St. Louis/RCD was a joyful celebration of everything the refractories industry has been through together, with a hopeful eye on the future. 5 Previous Planje award winners with Jeffrey Smith. (Not pictured, Mark Stett) 6 A lively reception before the banquet gave vendors and customers time to network and talk shop. 7 Christopher Parr, senior vice president and technical development director with Kerneos, opened the technical program with a keynote talk that reviewed refractory bond systems for monolithic castable refractories. 48 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 4TH CERAMIC LEADERSHIP SUMMIT― Industry is finding creative ways to succeed, say execs at CLS The 4th Ceramic Leadership Summit T held April 7-9 in Baltimore, Md., welcomed 125 executives, senior managers, university faculty, and young professionals. Charlie Spahr, ACerS executive director says, \"The quality of the CLS rests on two main pillars: The thought-provoking presentations of our excellent speakers, and the high level of engagement and interaction of the audience. These combined to create an event worthy of everyone\'s time.\" 1 Manufacturing faces some stiff challenges, but industry is finding creative ways to meet them head-on, work with them, redirect them, or embrace them. Investing in innovation is a key strategy and can take a variety of forms, but must be carefully managed. With an eye on nearterm as well as long-term horizons, executives are keen to develop labor pipelines at all levels of the education and job function spectrum. Highlights also included an Executive Forum breakfast, the Future Leaders program for young professionals, an entertaining and informative conference dinner talk by a ceramic art professor, and a tour of the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore. Key quotes from speakers give a flavor of the timbre of the event: \"Raw materials are not subject to new technology.\" • \"We are not looking for handouts, but we are not looking for encumbrances, either.\" • \"You\'re not in Kansas anymore, so be careful.\" • “It\'s really neat to start thinking differently, and that is what additive manufacturing enables.\" \"We wonder, didn\'t [the ancient Mayans] see what was coming? Well, why don\'t we see what\'s coming?\" • \"If it\'s not right for you, it won\'t be right for your competitors, either.\" • “Going fast does not excuse you from doing the right work well.\" • \"An important yet imprecise metric is way better than a precise, meaningless one. That is, focus on what matters most.\" • \"We\'re manufacturers-we\'re fighters!\" For additional coverage, visit http://bit.ly/acersgplus or www.ceramics. org/4th-ceramic-leaderhsip-summit-archive. 1 Leaders from manufacturing discussed “US Manufacturing Renaissance: Fact or Fantasy\" at the Executive Forum breakfast to kick off CLS. 2 James Meil (left, chief economist, Eaton Corp.) makes a point during a Q&A in the business climate overview session. Katharine Frase (right, chief technology officer, Global Public Sector, IBM) talked about the impact of technology and data trends. David Johnson (center) was moderator. 3 Martin Curran talked about Corning\'s success with \"agile\" innovation. 4 Bowling Green State University ceramic art professor, John Balistreri, 2 3 4 6 7 8 LO 5 manufacturing that segued into GE\'s investment in the technology and some of the pending challenges that remain. 6 Andy Zynga (left, CEO, NineSigma), who spoke on open innovation, talks with Parth Mukherjee (right) from Texas A&M University. bridged the gap between art, science, technology, tradition, and innovation in 7 George Wicks (left) talks to Marissa Reigel of the Savannah River National a fascinating talk at the conference dinner. 5 Steve Rengers, GE Aviation R&D manager, gave an overview of additive American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org Laboratory after a Future Leaders event. 8 Ceramic Leadership Summit in Baltimore, Md. 49 new products Walker HW VDZ/ISO KILN CALCULATOR alignment and calibration, near instant visual chemical profiling, and the ability to analyze large samples quickly. Thermo Fisher Scientific (Madison, Wis.) www.thermofisher.com 800-532-4752 ration. The printhead has 1,000 optimized geometry nozzles for improved drop volume uniformity and placement accuracy for higher-quality printed images. Two variants, GS6 and GS12, are available for a wide range of creative and textured designs for ceramic wall and floor tile. An improved electronic interface enhances ease of use and reduces setup time. The printhead can handle a wide range of fluids and viscosity ranges. Xaar (Cambridge, United Kingdom) www.xaar.com +44 (0)1223 423663 Refractories app arbison-Walker Refractories has application. The app is free through the Apple App Store and through Google Play under the name ANH Refractories. The app will calculate cement kiln brick quantities for ISO and VDZ shapes and will determine ring counts and total net and gross amounts of brick needed for any length kiln section. The app also includes a representative contact feature and product and technical information. ANH Refractories Co. (Pittsburgh, Pa.) www.hwr.com 800-492-8349 Raman imaging microscope The Thermo Scientific DXRxi The Thermo Scientific Doope reveals molecular structure, chemical composition, and sample morphology quickly and with improved ease of use. The instrument can identify defects and confirm product quality by analyzing large areas in microscopic detail. New OMNICxi image-centric software provides visually driven data acquisition and intuitive sample targeting and parameter optimization. The microscope also features automated 50 Batch attritor U nion Process\'s new batch attritor is capable of dry processing larger feed size materials. The new attritor broadens milling capabilities by allowing coarse input materials to be dry milled down to mesh or micron sizes, depending on the application. The equipment can meet the needs of a wide array of applications for singlestage or multiple-stage grinding. Union Process Inc. (Akron, Ohio) www.unionprocess.com 330-929-3333 Ceramic printhead aar\'s 1002 next-generation printXaard delivers high print quality and productivity for ceramic tile decoBefore After Image preparation software maging and Analysis has released add-ons for preparing publication images in scientific journals. The addons automate many common prepress image preparation procedures and have a corresponding series of tutorial videos. Add-ons help users prevent saving over existing images, template layout of multiple figures, and apply common correction procedures necessary for scientific imaging. Imaging and Analysis LLC (Saint Paul, Minn.) www.imagingandanalysis.com www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 Oresources Calendar of events May 2014 25-28 ISSNOX4: 4th Int\'l Symposium on SIAIONS and Non-oxides - Nagahama Royal Hotel, Shiga, Japan; http://ceramics.ynu.ac.jp/ISSNOX4 28-31 MMA2014: Microwave Materials and Their Applications - Boise Centre, Boise, Idaho; www.mma2014. com June 2014 1-5 American Conference on Neutron Scattering Crown Plaza, Knoxville, Tenn.; www.mrs.org/acns-2014 → 4-6 Workshop on Testing and Modeling Ceramic and Carbon Matrix Composites - Paris, France; www.lmt. ens-cachan.fr 8-13 CIMTEC 2014: 13th Int\'l Ceramics Conference - Montecatini Terme, Italy; www.cimtec-congress.org/2014 15-20 6th Forum on New Materials - Montecatini Terme, Italy; www.cimteccongress.org/2014 17-18 ACerS/NSF Principal Investigator Workshop - Hyatt House Falls Church, Fairfax, Va.; www.ceramics.org 22-25 Hydrometallurgy 2014: 7th Int\'l Symposium - Victoria, BC, Canada; http://web.cim.org/hydro2014 July 2014 9-11 5th Advances in Cement-based Materials - Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tenn.; www. ceramics.org 30-Aug. 1 Innovations in Biomedical Materials: Focus on Ceramics - Hilton Columbus Downtown, Columbus, Ohio; www.ceramics.org August 2014 4-7 3rd Int\'l Conference on Electrospinning - Westin San Francisco Market Street, San Francisco, Calif.; www.ceramics.org 17-21 ICC5: Int\'l Congress on Ceramics - Beijing Int\'l Conference Center, Beijing, China; www.icc-5.com 18-22 2014 Forum: Innovations & Breakthroughs in ResonantAcoustic Industrial Mixing - Butte, Mont.; www. resodynmixers.com 24-28 ISNOG 2014: Int\'l Symposium on Non-oxide and New Optical Glasses - Ramada Plaza Hotel, Jeju, Republic of Korea; www.isnog.org September 2014 22-25 Int\'l Commission on Glass XXIII Int\'l Congress - Parma, Italy; www. icglass.org 28-Oct. 1 COM 2014: 53rd Annual Conference of Metallurgists - Hyatt Regency Hotel, Vancouver, BC, Canada; http://web.cim.org/COM2014 October 2014 5-10 EPD 2014: 5th Int\'l Conference on Electrophoretic Deposition: Fundamentals and Applications Schloss Hernstein Seminar Hotel, Hernstein, Austria; www.engconf.org 12-16 MS&T\'14: Materials Science & Technology Conference and Exhibition -Materials 2014 - David L. Lawrence Convention Center, Pittsburgh, Pa.; www.matscitech.org 12-16 ACers Annual Meeting and Awards Banquet - David L. Lawrence Convention Center, Pittsburgh, Pa.; www.ceramics.org 21-24 Glasstec 2014: Int\'l Trade Fair for Glass Production - Düsseldorf, Germany; www.glasstec-online.com 26-29 ISHA2014: 4th Int\'l Solvothermal and Hydrothermal Conference Bordeaux, France; www.isha2014.univbordeaux.fr November 2014 3-6 75th Conference on Glass Problems Greater Columbus Convention Center, Columbus, Ohio; www. glassproblemsconference.org December 2014 4-6 ➡MET-14 (Materials Eng. Technology) with 11th Heat Treat Show The Exhibition Centre, Mahatma Mandir, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India; www.methtexpo.com January 2015 21-23 EMA 2015 - DoubleTree by Hilton Orlando, Orlando, Fla.; www. ceramics.org 25-30 ICACC\'15 - Daytona Beach, Fla.; www.ceramics.org April 2015 28-30 Ceramics Expo 2015 - I-X Center, Cleveland, Ohio; www. ceramicsexpousa.com May 2015 17-21 ACerS GOMD-DGG Joint Annual Meeting - Miami, Fla.; www. ceramics.org September 2015 15-18 UNITECR 2015 - Hofburg Congress Center, Vienna, Austria; www.unitecr2015.org July 2015 7-10 ICCCI2015: 5th Int\'l HighQuality Advanced Materials Conference - Fujiyoshida City, Japan; http:// ceramics.ynu.ac.jp/iccci2015/index.html Dates in RED denote new entry in this issue. Entries in BLUE denote ACerS events. denotes meetings that ACerS cosponsors, endorses, or otherwise cooperates in organizing. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 51 classified advertising Career Opportunities כן Plibrico Research & Development Manager Plibrico Company LLC, an industry leader in monolithic refractory technology is seeking a qualified individual to fill the position of R&D manager at its Chicago, Il location. Responsibilities will include leading product development and testing activities including interfacing with production, sales and marketing to introduce new products/process to production and commercialization, interacting with customers on technical service/application issues, and overseeing the quality assurance program. A BS degree or higher in ceramic engineering or materials engineering with a minimum of 5 years refractory (preferably monolithic refractory) development experience is required. Interested candidates should submit a cover letter and resume to: Mr. Len Krietz, Vice President of R&D at Ikrietz@plibrico.com. The Faculty of Engineering invites applications for a FRIEDRICH-ALEXANDER UNIVERSITÄT ERLANGEN-NÜRNBERG TECHNISCHE FAKULTÄT W2 Professorship for Materials Science (Functional Ceramics) at the Department of Materials Science to be filled by April 1st, 2015. The successful candidate is expected to represent the field adequately in teaching and research. The candidate\'s research interests should focus on physical and chemical aspects of functional ceramics including electrical, magnetic, or optical properties. Research should also cover synthesis, patterning, and property analysis of functional ceramics for applications in the fields of energy, electronics, sensor and actor technologies. The appointment involves teaching at undergraduate and graduate levels in Materials Science and related engineering programmes. The candidate should be committed to interdisciplinary research in co-operation with Energie Campus Nürnberg (EnCN) and the Cluster of Excellence \'Engineering of Advanced Materials\'. Prerequisites for the position are a university degree in materials science or related disciplines, university level teaching experience, a doctoral degree, and additional academic qualifications. These should be in the form of a Habilitation (post-doctoral thesis) or equivalent academic publications. The necessary qualifications may also have been acquired in a non-university context or through a junior faculty position (e.g. W1 Professor or Assistant Professor). FAU expects applicants to become actively involved in the administration of academic affairs and welcomes experience in managing research projects and raising third-party funding. The University of Erlangen-Nürnberg expects its teaching staff to be present during lecture periods. FAU is an equal opportunities and family friendly employer and is also responsive to the needs of dual career couples. In order to increase the number of women in leading academic positions, we specifically encourage women to apply. Please submit your complete application documents (CV, list of publications, list of lectures and courses taught, certified copies of certificates and degrees, list of third-party funding) to the Dean of the Faculty of Engineering, FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg, Martensstr. 5a, D-91058 Erlangen, by May 31st, 2014. Please also send an electronic version to tf-dekanat@fau.de. www.fau.de Grundzertifikat 2008 audit familiengerechte hochschule QUALITY EXECUTIVE SEARCH, INC. 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Especially needed are persons knowledgeable in foreign languages including German, French, Chinese, and Japanese. Recognition: The Contributing commentary written for the publication. In addition, your name and affiliation also will be included on the Title Pages under Contributing Editors. Qualifications: General understanding of the Gibbs phase rule and experimental procedures for determination of phase equilibria diagrams, and/or knowledge of theoretical methods to calculate phase diagrams. Compensation Per Article: $40 for commentary & first diagram, plus $10 each second & third diagrams, plus $5 for each additional diagram For Details Please Contact: Mrs. Mary Harne National Institute of Standards and Technology 100 Bureau Drive, Stop 8524 Building 223, Room A229 Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8524, USA Tel. 301-975-6109 E-mail: mary.harne @nist.gov NIST The American Ceramic Society www.ceramics.org American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 55 O deciphering the discipline Sapna Gupta Guest columnist Credit: Na Li; U. of Connecticut.) The exciting journey of an international graduate student Finding an effective and timely solution to emerging global climate change and related environmental issues is a major challenge of this decade. The World Energy Council projects future primary energy demand to increase dramatically as the population grows and developing nations elevate their living standards. With these global concerns in mind, I decided to pursue doctoral research with enthusiastic hopes of contributing to a greener future. As an international student, each and every stage of getting into a US graduate school was an amazing learning experience. After months spent finishing the challenging process of applying to US graduate schools, I still remember the day I got admitted to the University of Connecticut, Storrs mechanical science and engineering department. I was elated. But since it was my first visa interview and my first international journey, I also was nervous at the same time. The flight from New Delhi to Boston took almost 20 hours. But on August 10, 2011, I took a deep breath when the immigration checkpoint officer said, \"You are all set.\" My first day at the Center for Clean Energy Engineering at the University of Connecticut began with a brief introduction to the Center\'s lab equipment and research activities. I spent my first couple of months attending course lectures and finding an appropriate thesis research topic. After passing the qualifying exam and officially becoming a doctoral candidate, I was quite excited to start my own research. With the support of my faculty advisor Prabhakar Singh, director of the Center of Clean Energy 56 High-temperature electrochemical device testing at the Center for Clean Energy Engineering at the University of Connecticut. Engineering, I chose to work on the development of advanced functional ceramic materials as well as concepts and designs for cost-effective processes and manufacturing for high-temperature electrochemical systems. my During the past three years of graduate career, I have been introduced to various facets of research: critical assessment of literature, long hours of comparative study, precise documentation, frustration over unanticipated results, requirement for continuous perseverance, and the joy of solving a problem or making a discovery. This experience fascinates me and continues to pique my interest in research and development. In the summer of 2013, I completed an internship at Praxair Technology Center working on materials development for oxygen transport membrane systems. This technology currently is being developed for various applications, including clean coal combustion, CO₂ capture, and conversion of natural gas and other hydrocarbons to syngas and liquid fuels. Working with world class ceramists and materials scientists at Praxair was key for me to understand the value of basic science in solving key product development challenges. The internship helped me understand the value of teamwork and multidisciplinary knowledge in developing quality ceramic products and advancing materials and processing technologies for improved life and performance. Being mentored by industry and technology leaders taught me the value of materials research in advanced energy systems development. My experiences as an international graduate student have been holistic because of the skills and knowledge they have endowed me and because they have shown me how people from various cultures approach the same problem from different angles. Through my experiences, I have learned that nothing is impossible to a willing heart and mind. Sapna Gupta is a PhD candidate at the University of Connecticut, Storrs. She is the PCSA finance chair and president of the University of Connecticut chapter of Keramos. Gupta acknowledges her parents, advisor Prabhakar Singh, K.T. Jacob (Indian Institute of Science), Manoj K. Mahapatra (University of Connecticut), Jonathan Lane (Praxair), and Alok Pathak (National University of Singapore) as individuals who have supported her and contributed to her personal and professional growth. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 93, No. 4 ACERS CORPORATE MEMBERSHIP Join today to receive up to $2,000 in value! 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