AMERICAN CERAMIC SOCIETY bulletin emerging ceramics & glass technology Prospects for ion-exchange processing of commercial soda-lime-silica glasses MAY 2025 Evolution of car windshields | History of the glass transition | Value-added glass markets HARROP INDUSTRIAL KILNS SINCE 1919 COLUMBUS, OHIO • • HELPING YOU POWER THE FUTURE INDUSTRIAL KILNS Elevator Kiln Rotary Tube Pusher Plate Shuttle Kiln Tunnel Kiln Box Kiln TOLL FIRING & TESTING Product Development Material Characterization Technical Consulting Production Scale-Up From Single Firings to Multi-Month Tolling Campaigns Your kiln needs are unique, and, for more than a century, Harrop has responded with applied engineered solutions to meet your exact firing requirements. WWW.HARROPUSA.COM contents May 2025 • Vol. 104 No.4 feature articles cover story Prospects for ion-exchange processing 22 of commercial soda-lime-silica glasses lon-exchange processing has been used to improve the mechanical properties of many specialty glass compositions. But its potential for similar use with commercial-grade soda-lime-silica glasses remains to be explored. by William LaCourse, Jacob Kaspryk, and Benjamin J. A. Moulton The evolution and importance of car 28 windshields in automotive design 30 The history of car windshields reflects significant advancements in automotive design, marked by continuous innovations aimed at improving safety and comfort for both drivers and passengers. by Lisa McDonald The untold history of the glass transition The nature of glass is inextricably tied to its thermal history through the glass transition. But what of the history of the glass transition itself? This article explores the origin of this scientific concept, tracing its beginnings to an unlikely source. by Sofia F. Mauro and John C. Mauro departments News & Trends ACers Spotlight.. Research Briefs Ceramics in the Environment Ceramics in Energy... 3 10 16 18 20 industry Business and Market View...... Global markets and technologies for smart glass by BCC Publishing Staff Industry Perspectives.. Expanded access: DOE\'s nuclear waste glass database by Cory L. Trivelpiece, Xiaonan Lu, Dilpuneet Aidhy, and Collin Wilkinson Industry Insights Market demands spur development of innovative value-added glass products by David Holthaus columns Journal Highlights 7 8 33 Toward more sustainable soda-lime glass by Jonathon Foreman Deciphering the Discipline Lion Glass recycling: Preparing for the industrial transition by Elif Pinar Akman Özay meetings 60th Annual Symposium on Refractories highlights ... Upcoming meetings 40 34 35 American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org resources Calendar.... 36 Classified advertising. 37 Ad index. 39 1 AMERICAN CERAMIC SOCIETY Obulletin Editorial and Production Lisa McDonald, Editor Imcdonald@ceramics.org Michelle Martin, Production Editor Helen Widman, Content Coordinator Cyndy Griffith, Graphic Designer Editorial Advisory Board Krista Carlson, University of Nevada, Reno Junichi Tatami, Yokohama National University Henry Colorado, Universidad de Antioquia Scott McCormack, University of California, Davis Daniela Messina, RHI Magnesita Lavina Backman, Naval Research Laboratory Customer Service/Circulation ph: 866-721-3322 fx: 614-899-6109 customerservice@ceramics.org Advertising Sales National Sales Mona Thiel, National Sales Director mthiel@ceramics.org ph: 614-794-5834 Executive Staff Mark Mecklenborg, Executive Director and Publisher mmecklenborg@ceramics.org Amanda Engen, Director of Communications and Workforce Development aengen@ceramics.org Marcus Fish, Director of Development, Ceramic and Glass Industry Foundation mfish@ceramics.org Michael Johnson, Director of Finance and Operations mjohnson@ceramics.org Andrea Ross, Director of Meetings, Membership, and Marketing aross@ceramics.org Erica Zimmerman, Executive Office Manager ezimmerman@ceramics.org Officers Monica Ferraris, President Mario Affatigato, President-elect Rajendra Bordia, Past President Daniel Tipsord, Treasurer Mark Mecklenborg, Secretary Board of Directors Joseph Cesarano, Director 2022-2025 Marissa Reigel, Director 2022-2025 Winnie Wong-Ng, Director 2022-2025 Alexandra Navrotsky, Director 2023-2026 Dileep Singh, Director 2023-2026 Todd Steyer, Director 2023-2026 Christopher Berndt, Director 2024-2027 Ruyan Guo, Director 2024-2027 Rodney Trice, Director 2024-2027 Stephen Freiman, Parliamentarian online www.ceramics.org May 2025 • http://bit.ly/acerstwitter As seen on Ceramic Tech Today... Credit: Nicole Fandel, MIT Lincoln Laboratory Vol. 104 No.4 in http://bit.ly/acerslink f http://bit.ly/acersfb 3D-printed glass: Shining a light on recent developments Developments in glass 3D printing continue to advance slowly, and today\'s CTT summarizes some recent work done by several groups at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in this area. Read more at https://ceramics.org/3d-printed-glass-developments Also see our ACers journals... Thermo-rheological snapshot of melter feed conversion to glass By S. Younk, J. L. George, S. A. Luksic, et al. Journal of the American Ceramic Society Structure and durability of opal crystallized glass plates By L. Brunswic, F. Angeli, L. Gautron, et al. International Journal of Applied Glass Science (A) (B) (C) (D) (E) Core layer Reaction layer Transparent superhydrophobic and thermal insulating dual- functional coatings fabricated by a rapid thermal process By C. Ke, C. Zhang, L. Pan, and Y. Jiang International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology Automated tool for cylindrical glass container blow and blow mold design By O. Fibla-Figuerola, A. Biosca, V. Pedret-Clemente, et al. International Journal of Applied Glass Science International of Molten glass Credit: Younk et al., JACerS Journal Applied Ceramic Applied Glass SCIENCE International Journal of 200mN Ceramic Engineering & Science Read more at https://ceramics.org/journals American Ceramic Society Bulletin is the membership magazine of The American Ceramic Society. It covers news and activities of the Society and its members and provides the most current information concerning all aspects of ceramic science and technology, including R&D, manufacturing, engineering, and marketing. American Ceramic Society Bulletin is published monthly, except for February, July, and November. Subscription included with The American Ceramic Society membership. Institutional subscription rates can be found online at www.ceramics.org or by contacting customer service at customerservice@ceramics.org. The American Ceramic Society is not responsible for the accuracy of information in the editorial, articles, and advertising sections of this publication. Readers should independently evaluate the accuracy of any statement in these sections. Publication of articles does not constitute endorsement, acceptance, or approval of the data, opinions, or conclusions of the authors on the part of the Society or its editors. POSTMASTER: Please send address changes to American Ceramic Society Bulletin, 470 Olde Worthington Road, Suite 200, Westerville, OH 43082-8985. Periodical postage paid at Westerville, Ohio, and additional mailing offices. Allow six weeks for address changes. American Ceramic Society Bulletin (ISSN No. 0002-7812). ©2025. Printed in the United States of America. ACSBA7, Vol. 104, No. 4, pp. 1-40. All feature articles are covered in Current Contents. 2 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 news & trends Down in price, up in size: The climate costs of supersized electric vehicles Thanks to mature technology, expanded options, and federal tax credits, the price for electric vehicles has dropped consider- ably in recent years, bringing this technology into the realm of affordability for many more consumers. But as the price for EVs has gone down, the size of EVs has started to creep up. Although supersized EVs are better for air quality than a similar-sized internal combustion engine vehicle during opera- tion, manufacturing the supersized battery and components produces considerable emissions. This fact begs the question- are supersized EVs really better for the planet? Downsides of supersized vehicles Simple physics tells us that a heavier object moving at the same speed as a smaller object will have more force upon impact. When applied to cars, this logic indicates that a supersized vehicle will cause more damage to pedestrians, other vehicles, and stationary objects (such as guardrails) dur- ing collision. Furthermore, the increased height and bulk of supersized vehicles can obstruct sightlines, making it harder for drivers to see pedestrians, especially smaller individuals or children. This limitation makes collisions more likely, not to mention that the vehicle\'s heavier weight will put increased stress on bridges and overpasses. And then there is the increased environmental cost of mining materials for all the supersized components. In some ways, these downsides are even more acute for supersized EVs. Concerns for pedestrian safety EVs are so quiet that they are required to produce an artifi- cial noise at low speed. Their lack of noise can make them dif- ficult for distracted pedestrians or bicyclists to hear. One study Think higher! ALTRA FLEX® The 1st European oxide ceramic continuous fiber Experience endless possibilities up to 1200 °C > Maintains strength and flexibility > Ideal for fabrics, 3D printing, composites, weaving, braiding and more > German quality - developed and manufactured by RATH www.rath-group.com/altraflex American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org OUTSTANDING INSIDE Refractory Solutions® RATH 3 4 news & trends Credit: Mr.choppers, Wikimedia (CC BY-SA 3.0) found that pedestrian collisions with EVs were almost twice as common as pedestrian collisions with gas cars. Damage to infrastructure Like cargo trucks, heavier EVs can place increased stress on road surfaces and bridges. But EVs also have lower centers of gravity than gasoline-powered cars, and this fact has raised concerns that existing highway guardrails may be insufficient to stop many electric vehicles. Furthermore, many highway repair programs are funded by state gasoline taxes. As EV use goes up, gasoline tax receipts go down. As such, different highway maintenance funding schemes are needed. Environmental concerns The environmental benefits of EVs during operation must be offset by the costs of mining and refining the necessary materials. The larger the vehicle, the greater the demand for raw materials. EV batteries, particularly, present environmental challenges. Batteries rely on many critical minerals and metals, and min- ing these materials is resource intensive. Additionally, the tailings (leftovers from the mining process) can leach toxic chemicals into the ground, contaminating water sources and causing habitat loss. The climate costs of supersized electric vehicles In January 2025, Perry Gottesfeld, executive director of the nonprofit Occupational Knowledge International, published an open-access opinion piece analyzing the tradeoff between climate costs and benefits of supersized electric vehicle produc- tion and operation. Example of the 2024 Tesla Cybertruck Foundation Series, which weighs in at 6,669 lbs. Similarly sized gas-powered pickup trucks weight much less. For example, the Ford F-150 has similar dimensions as the Cybertruck but ranges from 4,021 to 5,740 lbs depending on the model, engine, and features. \"To better align car purchasing with the goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, we need to educate consumers that replacing a conventional vehicle with an EV may not necessari- ly be reducing their emissions,\" Gottesfeld said in an interview with Cosmos. He concluded that supersized EVs are \"failing to substan- tially reduce greenhouse gas emissions\" in comparison to small conventional vehicles, and so improved public policy, incen- tives, and messaging are needed to drive consumer demand to smaller EVs. The open-access paper, published in PLOS Sustainability and Transformation, is \"Super-sized electric vehicles will not solve the climate crisis\" (DOI: 10.1371/journal.pstr.0000159). Corporate Partner news CARBO Ceramics\' new Louisiana plant earns ISO certification In January 2025, CARBO Ceramics\' new plant in New Iberia, La., achieved ISO certification, awarded by Perry Johnson Registrars Inc. This new plant specializes in chemi- cal coating, infusing, and drying processes. Read more: https://carbo.tech/newsroom Sumitomo Chemical appoints new chairman and president In February 2025, Sumitomo Chemical Nomination Advisory Committee appointed Nobuaki Mito as the com- pany\'s new president. His inauguration is planned for June 2025. Keiichi Iwata, the current president, will serve as rep- resentative director and chairman. Read more: https://www. sumitomo-chem.co.jp/english Toto Ltd. in top 10% of S&P Global\'s Sustainability Yearbook ranking Toto Ltd., a Japanese multinational toilet manufacturer, was selected as one of the top 10% in S&P Global\'s Sustainability Yearbook for 2025 rankings. S&P Global assessed 7,690 companies worldwide and selected only 780 companies. Read more: https://www.toto.com/en/press U.S. Borax donates to communities impacted by Los Angeles wildfires In February 2025, Rio Tinto\'s U.S. Borax donated $600,000 to organizations to help support the areas impact- ed by wildfires in the Los Angeles area. The funds will be split evenly between The Kern County Fire Department, the Los Angeles Fire Department Foundation, and the Los Angeles Regional Food Bank. Read more: https://www. borax.com/news-events www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 Z Deltech Furnaces New! Hazardous locations certifications NFPA86, UL1203, C1D2 (Groups G&D) An ISO 9001:2015 certified company Control systems are certified by Intertek UL508A compliant ASME NQA-1 2008 Nuclear Quality Assurance www.deltechfurnaces.com bec Research business and market view Global markets and technologies for smart glass he global market for The ☐ smart glass was valued at $5.6 billion in 2023 and is expected to grow at a compound annual growth. rate (CAGR) of 11.7% to reach $10.8 billion by the end of 2029. Smart glass, also called switchable glass, is a type of chromogenic material that can change its optical properties to become opaque or tinted in response to various signal types. It can be classified as either active or passive (Table 1). Active smart glass requires electricity to change its properties. Examples of active smart glass technologies include • • Electrochromic glass, which consists of electrochromic materials and con- ductive coatings fitted between two sheets of glass. Electricity causes ions to move between the layers, altering the optical properties. • Suspended particle device glass, which uses rod-like particles sus- pended in a liquid or film between two layers of glass. Electricity causes the orientation of the particles to vary, thereby regulating the amount of light transmitted. • Polymer-dispersed liquid crystal glass, which uses liquid crystal mole- cules dispersed in a polymer between two layers of glass. Electricity causes the orientation of the molecules to vary, thereby regulating the amount of light transmitted. Passive smart glass relies on inherent properties to respond to external stimuli without requiring electricity. Examples of passive smart glass technologies include 6 • Photochromic glass, which con- tains molecules that darken when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. • Thermochromic glass, which con- tains materials that change opacity when exposed to heat. Table 1. Basic comparison of different smart glass technologies Туре Control mechanism Common applications Response speed Electrochromic Electric Office partitions, windows, automotive, residential Slow (up to several minutes) Suspended particle Electric devices Automotive, aircraft, luxury Fast buildings, skylights Privacy windows, office partitions Sunlight exposure Exterior building Slow windows, eyewear Thermochromic Temperature sensitive Building windows, greenhouses, skylights Slow changes in temperature Polymer-dispersed Electric liquid crystals Photochromic Instant (seconds to minutes) Table 2. Global market for smart glass, by end-use industry, through 2029 ($ millions) End-use industry 2024 2029 CAGR % (2024-2029) 13.4 2023 Construction 2,955.4 3,312.7 6,200.5 Automotive and aircraft 1,861.6 2,036.7 3,371.1 10.6 Electronics 355.0 376.9 533.5 7.2 Power generation 280.6 300.7 443.3 8.1 Others* 166.5 181.9 234.2 5.2 Total** 5,619.0 6,209.0 10,782.5 11.7 *Other segments include consumer products and medical devices. *Totals in this report\'s tables might not match exactly because of rounding. ** Smart glass finds significant applica- tion in the construction industry for purposes such as creating partitions and improving energy efficiency (Table 2). But it is also gaining ground in the automotive sector for use as sunroofs and windows. The electronics industry is exploring the use of smart glass, too, to enable dynamic electronic display features, such as light adjustment and privacy options. Meanwhile, the power generation industry is investigating smart glass integrated with photovoltaic tech- nology to help reduce energy needs for lighting and cooling. As of 2023, Europe accounted for the highest market share of smart glass (38.7%), followed by North America (30.4%) and Asia-Pacific (21.1%). The European market\'s interest in smart glass is mostly due to strict government regu- lations toward energy-efficient buildings. About the author BCC Publishing Staff provides com- prehensive analyses of global market sizing, forecasting, and industry intelli- gence, covering markets where advances in science and technology are improv- ing the quality, standard, and sustain- ability of businesses, economies, and lives. Contact the staff at Helia.Jalili@ bccresearch.com. Resource BCC Publishing Staff, “Global mar- kets and technologies for smart glass,\" BCC Research Report AVM065E, January 2025. https://bit.ly/BCC- January-2025-smart-glass www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 ● industry perspectives By Cory L. Trivelpiece, Xiaonan Lu, Dilpuneet Aidhy, and Collin Wilkinson Guest columnists Expanded access: DOE\'s nuclear waste glass database Scientists and engineers around the world have worked for decades developing technologies to safely and permanently dispose of nuclear waste. Though these wastes originate from a multitude of processes, they all are highly toxic and extremely harmful to life in any form. In 1982, borosilicate glass was deemed the preferred waste form for the disposal of high-level nuclear waste.¹ Since then, researchers confirmed glass is an effective waste form for low-activity waste as well.² In the years leading up to and follow- ing that 1982 decision, an enormous amount of data has been generated by U.S. national labs, universities, and international institutions relating to the properties of nuclear waste glasses. Until recently, most of this data could only be accessed from isolated reports or institu- tional databases maintained by scientists who performed the original experiments. In 2019, researchers from Savannah River and Pacific Northwest National Laboratories joined forces to create the first online, open-access repository of nuclear waste glass data. This effort, which now also includes experts from Clemson and Alfred Universities, is spon- sored by the U.S. Department of Energy\'s Office of Environmental Management. The primary goal of the database development team is to consolidate the data from these decades of research into a single source that can be used by glass scientists from around the world to study vitrified radioactive waste forms. They have worked to incorporate data from multiple institutions; identify the Nuclear Quality Assurance level for each study; develop a forward-facing “landing page\" for the front end of the database; and implement filtering methods to tar- get specific glass properties such as com- position, viscosity, and durability. In 2024, the development team began work to bootstrap the former \"SciGlass\" database, which contains information on more than 400,000 glasses, to the website. Along with this boot- strapping, which allowed for greater compositional breadth, the developers incorporated machine learning-based pre- dictive models to enhance the database\'s utility. The result is the new Virtual Center for Nuclear Waste Glass Science, which currently includes data for more than 6,000 glass compo- sitions with various properties related to processability and product quality. In contrast to other glass databases, the Virtual Center uses statistical mechanics-based estimates to approximate various properties, adding physically meaningful results to the soft- ware implementation. These estimates are made possible through using the new Stat Mech Glass Python module.+ The Virtual Center for Nuclear Waste Glass Science is undergoing its final rounds of beta testing before being officially launched to the gen- eral public. The website can be found at https://srnl.mcdc. cecas.clemson.edu/database. About the authors DOE Virtual Center for Nuclear Waste Glass Science SRNL General в 28 Dashboard Glass Database MLModels Consolidating data from decades of high-level and low-activity waste research o o 00 Consolidated database Pacific Northwest CLEMSON Online hosted database Dashboard > Glass Database Glass Database Explore all the available glass databases here. Admin Glass Database K Ca Cr M Fe Co Rh Pd Ag Cd W Re Os Ir Pt Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Users Cory L. Trivelpiece is principal engi- neer in the Glass, Cement, and Ceramic Science Group at Savannah River National Laboratory. Xiaonan Lu is a materials scientist at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Dilpuneet Aidhy is associate professor of materials science and engineering at Clemson University. Collin Wilkinson is assistant professor of glass science and engineering at Alfred University. All are co-principal investiga- tors on the Virtual Center for Nuclear Waste Glass Science. Contact Trivelpiece at Cory.Trivelpiece@srnl.doe.gov. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org Alfred University Beta testing via Al Tools and Simulations MI References NATIONAL LABORATORY GlassDatabase v1 CNO Reported log 10 (n[Pas] 102 U10° 1\"EA-0179: Waste form selection for SRP high-level waste,\" Washington, D.C. (1982). https://www.energy.gov/nepa/ea-0179-waste- form-selection-srp-high-level-waste 2J. Marcial et al., “Hanford low-activity waste vitrification: A review,\" Journal of Hazardous Materials 2024, 461: 132437. 3SciGlass Next, https://sciglass.uni-jena.de 4C. J. Wilkinson et al., “Statistical mechani- cal modeling of glass-forming systems: A prac- tical review considering an example calcium silicate system,\" Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science 2022, 26(5): 101018. Credit: Images provided by Savannah River and Pacific Northwest National Laboratories and Clemson and Alfred Universities. Compiled by Cyndy Griffith, ACers. 7 By David Holthaus Industry reporter Credit: Chuck Choi Architectural Photography industry insights Market demands spur development of innovative value-added glass products Bigger, brighter, louder—as large-scale commercial and residential construction booms alongside growing urban popula- tions, there are ever-increasing demands on buildings to keep occupants insulated from the intrusive sights and sounds of expanding cities. Add in the fact that many nations, states, and municipalities have adopted stricter energy efficiency standards for new constructions, and it is clear the market for value-added glass is prime for growth. Value-added glass refers to glass that has been enhanced to offer additional functionalities beyond basic transpar- ency. For example, smart or switchable glass, which can change its opacity or tint in response to electrical, thermal, and light signals, provide buildings with both improved solar control and privacy. (Learn more about the market for smart glass on page 6 in this issue.) Other examples include ultraviolet-resistant glass, which helps prevent degradation in museum artwork; water-repellent glass, which improves visibility when driving during rainy conditions; and acoustic glass, which reduces the noise inside buildings and vehicles to acceptable levels without sacrificing daylight. Glass manufacturers around the world have responded to these market demands, rolling out innovative, value-added glass products that provide benefits such as energy efficiency, privacy, and more. Below are just a few examples of compa- nies innovating in this sector. North America Auburn Hills, Mich.-based Guardian Glass has been a leader in the value-added glass sector. Thirty years ago, the company started up its first high-performance glass coater in Carleton, Mich. Today, the com- pany operates 16 glass coaters around the world, producing advanced commercial glass on every continent. 8 Its SunGuard line of coated glasses offers different levels of solar control and light transmission. It is installed on some of the most ambitious structures in the world, including the world\'s tallest build- ing Burj Kalifa, which serves as a center for commerce and culture in the desert climate of Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The company also recently began commercializing a between-the-glass, automated shade technology. The shade is contained within a double- or triple-in- sulating glass unit, has no mechanical parts, and is activated by passing a small current through the conductive lay- ers, creating an electrostatic attraction between the ultrathin shade and the glass surface. It has licensed the technol- ogy to Coral Springs, Fla.-based Privacy Glass Solutions, which will produce and commercialize the product in the U.S. Guardian has also pioneered bird-friendly glass. More than 1 billion birds die each year from glass impacts in the U.S., according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the American Bird Conservancy and others have pushed for bird-friendly design standards. Guardian\'s Bird1st UV glass appears transparent to humans under most viewing conditions but features a striped pattern that is visi- ble to birds. It is available in large sheet sizes to permit the design and installation of bird-friendly building façades. Europe Paris, France-based global manufac- turer Saint-Gobain offers a value-added glass product that helps prevent over- heating in buildings. The product, called Cool-Lite, reduces energy needs with an invisible thermal shield that retains the heat inside the building and captures the sun\'s heat to keep it outside. The glass façades of Humaniti, a 39-story complex in downtown Montreal, Canada, that houses apartments, a hotel, Guardian Glass SunGuard products were used in this Boston-area office building to enhance the project\'s sustainability, for example, by pro- viding thermal insulation. offices, and restaurants, were made with Saint-Gobain\'s solar control glass and with its Planitherm glass, a low-emissivity, multipane safety glass. Mainz, Germany-based Schott AG, whose founder, Otto Schott, is credited with inventing specialty glass resistant to heat and temperature change, has con- tinued its history of glass innovations. Its Pyran Platinum glass product offers high resistance to heat and thermal shock while maintaining a clear, colorless appearance and a smooth surface. It pro- vides fire protection for up to 90 minutes in windows and 180 minutes in doors, the company states on its website. Asia Tokyo, Japan-based NSG Group, which owns the Pilkington brand of glass products, introduced a heated, insu- lating glass solution in 2024 featuring an electrically conductive coating. This HeatComfort technology provides infra- red heating, offering a sustainable meth- od for heating and insulating homes. By applying a voltage to the coating, the glass heats up. When incorporated into an insulating glass unit, the heat flow can be directed into the living space. NSG also offers a Pilkington line of fire-resistant architectural glass, Pyrostop, that it says can provide additional time in an emergency for evacuation and fire extinguishing. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 Value-added glass in transportation The transportation industry also uses value-added glass for, among other things, windshields, sunroofs, and display panels. Zeeland, Mich.-based Gentex supplies dimmable devices for vehicles, shipping more than 40 million units annually. Its product portfolio includes glare-eliminating interior and exterior rearview mirrors for automobiles and electronically dimmable windows for the aerospace industry. Among its new- est products are large-area dimmable devices, such as sunroofs and sun visors. Asahi India Glass Ltd. also offers a host of value-added glass products for the automotive segment. Examples of their prod- ucts include heated windshields that automatically melt snow, windshields with in-built sensors to assist during dangerous driving conditions, and water-repellent windshields that pre- vent water droplets from adhering during downpours. About the author David Holthaus is an award-winning journalist based in Cincinnati, Ohio, who covers business and technology. Contact Holthaus at dholthaus@ceramics.org. Market forecast for value-added glass Market research firms forecast solid growth in the value-added glass market in the next few years. New York City-based IMARC Group valued the global advanced glass market (which includes value-added glass) at $76.6 billion in 2024 and estimates it will grow at a compound annual growth rate of 4.3% to reach $114.3 bil- lion by 2033. Ireland-based Research and Markets fore- casts faster annual growth. In a 2022 report on advanced glass, it valued the market at $65.9 billion in 2021 and pro- jected it will grow at a com- pound annual growth rate of 6.7% to reach $117.9 billion by 2030. Worldwide, demand for value- added glass is strongest in the Asia-Pacific region, according to the IMARC report. Rapid urbanization in the region as well as infrastructure develop- ment and the expansion of the automotive and construction industries are credited with the growth. In North America, strong demand from the con- struction and automotive sec- tors is behind the growth, partly from an emphasis on sustain- able infrastructure and the growth of electric vehicles. In Europe, the expanding aero- space and defense sectors are contributing to the growth of value-added and other advanced glasses. The American Ceramic Society ceramics.org Orton ACers Learning Center Course Feature: Introduction to Glass Properties Instructed by Joseph Homeny On-Demand | 12 hours of instruction This course is an intensive combination of virtual lectures and laboratory demonstrations that address most of the significant properties of glass, both theoretically and experimentally. The lectures are organized to define each property, examine thermal and compositional effects, and describe practical measurement techniques. Register for the On-Demand course at https://ceramics.org/course/ homeny-glass-properties Use code GLASS20 to get 20% off your registration! Offer valid for one-time use from 4/30/25 to 5/30/25. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 9 acers spotlight: SOCIETY Welcome new ACerS Corporate Partners ACerS is pleased to welcome its newest Corporate Partner: DIVISION SECTION CHAPTER NEWS TOYO TANSO Inspiration for Innovation To learn about the benefits of ACerS Corporate Partnership, contact Yolanda Natividad, associate director of membership and industry relations, at (614) 794-5827 or ynatividad@ceramics.org. ACers International Türkiye Chapter attends Material Expo On March 1, 2025, ACerS International Türkiye Chapter members attended the Material Expo, a Material Advantage program at Eskişehir Technical University. The program offered students a unique opportunity to gain firsthand knowledge about careers, industry standards, and emerging developments in the field of materials sci- ence and engineering from 12 distinguished speakers from leading businesses in the industry. Students reported a positive experience at the Material Expo, and the ACerS International Türkiye Chapter plans to create similar initiatives to improve the linkage between academia and industry. FOR MORE INFORMATION: ceramics.org/spotlight WEBINARS TO WATCH TMS is AM ADVANTAGE MATERIAL MATERIAL ADVANTAGE ESKIŞEHIR TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY ACers International Türkiye Chapter members at the Material Expo. Check out these recent additions to the ACerS Webinar Archives: HYDRATION-INDUCED CRACKING OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES: A EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVE Original air date: Feb. 24, 2025 E-LEARNING Hosted by: Cements Division Featured speaker: Agnieszka Jędrzejewska ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF CERAMICS and SELF-STANDING, MALLEABLE DOUGHS OF ADVANCED CERAMICS ENABLE LOW-NUMBER PRODUCTION ON A BENCHTOP Original air date: March 10, 2025 Hosted by: Acers International Italy Chapter and ACers International Türkiye Chapter Featured speaker: Paolo Colombo and Özge Akbulut ACers members can view these webinars and other past recordings by visiting the ACers Webinar Archives at www.ceramics.org/education/webinars 10 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 Third São Carlos School welcomes nearly 100 attendees to advance glass science education and research The Third São Carlos School on Glasses and Glass-Ceramics took place March 10-15, 2025, at the Federal University of São Carlos in Brazil. This prestigious event, which is organized by the Center for Glass Research, Technology and Education in Vitreous Materials (CeRTEV), brought together students and professors from around the world to advance glass science educa- tion and research. The 94 attendees came from 12 countries, including the U.S., France, Germany, Poland, China, Croatia, Nigeria, Türkiye, Japan, India, Colombia, and Brazil. The School featured a care- fully balanced program of high-level scientific lectures during the day, complemented by vibrant social activities in the evenings. These activities included a cocktail reception, an international snack party, a capoeira demonstration and tutorial, a glass orches- tra performance, a farm visit, and student networking events. The organizers extend their sincere gratitude to the spon- sors who made this event possible: CeRTEV, DEMa-UFSCar, NYSCC Alfred University, ParqTec São Carlos, FAPESP, Şişecam, Corning, and the International Commission on Glass. Special recognition goes to the New York State College Comay Instructors and attendees of the Third São Carlos School on Glasses and Glass-Ceramics (March 2025). of Ceramics at Alfred University, whose exceptional contribu- tion enriched the program significantly. Their delegation of six distinguished faculty members delivered outstanding lectures that inspired intellectual engagement and genuine excitement among participants. Instructors from Wuhan, Warsow, Corning, Şişecam, and AGC further strengthened and crystallized the School\'s program as well. Further details about the School can be found on the CERTEV webpage at https://bit.ly/Third-Sao-Carlos- School-2025. Glass professors and researchers are encouraged to send their students to the Fourth São Carlos School, which is planned for 2026. TT TevTech Materials Processing Solutions CUSTOM DESIGNED VACUUM FURNACES FOR CHEMICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION Unsurpassed thermal and deposition uniformity Exceptional Automated control systems providing consistent quality product Pilot Scale systems available for rapid product development Systems installed and operating in Asia, U.S. and Europe ASME SETTING THE STANDARD ASME SECTION VIII BPVC CERTIFIED OVER [30] YEARS EXPERIENCE 100 Billerica Ave Billerica, MA 01862 sales@tevtechllc.com Call (978) 667-4557 American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 25 www.tevtechllc.com 11 acers spotlight MEMBER Volunteer Spotlight: Delbert E. HIGHLIGHTS IN MEMORIAM Murray Schwartz FOR MORE INFORMATION: ceramics.org/membership Day ACerS Volunteer Spotlight profiles a member who demonstrates outstanding service to the Society. Delbert E. Day is Curators\' Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Ceramic Engineering at the Missouri University of Science and Technology (Missouri S&T). Day received a B.S. in ceramic engineering at the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy (now called Missouri S&T) and a Ph.D. in ceramic technology from The Pennsylvania State University. Following his Ph.D., Day returned to Missouri S&T and for the next 50 years taught classes in the ceramic engineering program. He and his students performed ground-breaking research on a variety of glass-related topics, including the mixed alkali effect, nucleation and crystallization phenomena, iron phosphate glasses, and glasses for biomedical applications. The latter work included the development of glass microspheres for radioembolism treatment of liver cancer, and in 1985, Day started the company Mo-Sci to produce the microspheres. The company has now grown to become a worldwide supplier of specialty glasses for healthcare applications and other engineering products. Day is a Distinguished Life Member and past president of The American Ceramic Society. He is a recipient of the Glass & Optical Materials Division\'s George W. Morey Award for glass research (1998), the Phoenix Award for the Glass Person of the Year (2010), and the International Commission on Glass President\'s Award (2013), among his many other honors. He is also a member of the National Academy of Engineers and a fellow of the National Academy of Inventors. We extend our deep appreciation to Day for his service to our Society! ACerStudent Engagement: Aaron Bossen Aaron Bossen is a Ph.D. candidate studying mate- rials science and engineering at The Pennsylvania State University. He serves as a member of the ACerS President\'s Council of Student Advisors (PCSA) Communications Committee. \"The PCSA has been a great professional resource with- in this exciting field, and has also connected me with new friends and experiences I wouldn\'t have had otherwise.\" You can take advantage of these opportunities as well by becoming a student member of ACerS. Visit https://ceramics.org/membership/types-of-membership to learn more. Associate Membership Find out how you can expand your knowledge and gain valuable connections by visiting ceramics.org/associate 12 First year complimentary Second year $40 USD The American Ceramic Society www.ceramics.org www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 A AdValue Technology Quality Materials to Empower a World of Solutions Ceramic Tech Chat: Holly Shulman Hosted by ACerS Bulletin editors, Ceramic Tech Chat talks with ACerS members to learn about their unique and personal stories of how they found their way to careers in ceramics. New episodes publish the third Wednesday of each month. Microwave processing for future lunar colonies: Holly Shulman In the March 2025 episode of Ceramic Tech Chat, Holly Shulman, research professor at Alfred University, shares how she became interested in microwave sintering, describes its benefits compared to conventional sintering processes, and explains how it could support the development of future lunar colonies. Check out a preview from her episode, where she describes the difference between microwave and conventional sintering. \"What\'s happening is instead of just driving heat from the surface inward, if you can apply the energy volumetrically instead of just from the surface, then you\'re able to absorb energy in larger volumes, right? ... Now, microwaves are not the most efficient way of creating a heat source. But once you have that microwave energy impinging on your product, your prod- uct is able to absorb it immediately and completely in the whole volume.\" Listen to Shulman\'s whole interview-and all our other Ceramic Tech Chat episodes—at https://ceramictechchat.ceramics. org/974767. ceramic American Ceramic Society Tech chat S www.ceramics.org/ceramic-tech-chat ■ Alumina ■Quartz ■Sapphire ■ Diamond ■ Zirconia ■Boron Nitride ■Transparent Ceramics ■Thick Film Pastes ■ High Purity Powders ■Refractory Metals www.advaluetech.com Alumina Quartz Sapphire Diamond Zirconia Boron Nitride Transparent Ceramics Thick Film Pastes High Purity Powders Refractory Metals Tel: 520-514-1100 Fax: 520-747-4024 Sales@advaluetech.com 3158 S. Chrysler Ave., Tucson, AZ 85713 CENTORR Vacuum Industries VII Batch Hot Press Continuous All types of High Temperature Ceramics Processing Vacuum Furnaces PRODUCTION AND LABORATORY - CENTO Names in the News Members-Would you like to be included in the Bulletin\'s Names in the News? Please send a current head shot along with the link to the article to mmartin@ceramics.org. S.K. Sundaram, FACerS, Inamori Professor of materials science and engineering in The New York State College of Ceramics at Alfred University, was elected a Fellow of Optica. Sundaram received this distinction for his contributions to the development of the structure- terahertz properties relationship, ultrafast laser modification of glasses, and ceramics and optical materials education. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org All non-oxides: SiC, AIN, BN, TiB2, B4C & Si3N4 Hot Presses from 0.5 to 1500 tons Over 6,500 lab and production furnaces built since 1954 •Max Possible Temperature: 3,500°C (6,332°F) Hot Zones: 10 cc to 28 cu meters (0.6 cu in to 990 cu ft) • Debind, Sinter, Anneal, Hot Press, Diffusion Bond, CVD, CVI, MIM, AM •CVI testing in our lab to 2,800°C (5,072°F) •Worldwide Field Service, rebuilds and parts for all makes MADE IN THE USA Centorr Vacuum Industries ⚫603-595-7233 55 Northeastern Blvd., Nashua NH 03062 USA sales@centorr.com www.centorr.com 13 acers spotlight AWARDS AND DEADLINES Nomination deadlines for Division awards: May 15, July 1, or Aug. 1, 2025 Contact: Vicki Evans | vevans@ceramics.org Division Award Deadline GOMD Alfred R. Cooper May 15 Scholars Contacts A FOR MORE INFORMATION: ceramics.org/members/awards 14 Award EDIV Edward C. Henry Award May 15 EDIV Lewis C. Hoffman May 15 Scholarship ECD Mrityunjay July 1 Call for YPN+1 Division Liaisons Singh Bridge Building Award The YPN+1 program offers Young Professionals Network (YPN) members a way to become involved in leadership roles within ECD Global Young Investigator July 1 ACers and their Divisions. Being a YPN Division Liaison provides YPN mem- bers the opportunity to connect in a meaningful way with their Division, learn how it operates, contribute ECD to Division decisions, help James I. Mueller July 1 promote engagement with other Lecture young professionals, and more. Applications are now open for YPN Division Liaisons for the 2025-2026 term. To review the expectations for YPN Division Liaisons and to apply, visit www. ceramics.org/ypn1-program. The deadline to apply is July 20, 2025. ECD Jubilee Global Diversity Award July 1 Steve Martin swmartin@iastate.edu Christina Rost cmrost@vt.edu Christina Rost cmrost@vt.edu Amjad Almansour amjad.s.almansour@nasa.gov Federico Smeacetto federico.smeacetto@polito.it Description Recognizes undergraduate stu- dents who demonstrated excel- lence in research, engineering, and/or study in glass science or technology. Recognizes an outstanding paper reporting original work in Journal of the American Ceramic Society or the Bulletin during the previous calendar year on a subject related to electronic ceramics. Recognizes academic interest and excellence among undergraduate students in ceramics/materials science and engineering. Recognizes individuals outside of the United States who have made outstanding contributions to engi- neering ceramics, international collaboration, and outreach. Recognizes the outstanding young ceramic engineer or scientist whose achievements have been significant to the profession and to the general welfare of the community around the globe. Nominations are open to candi- dates from industry, academia, or government-funded laboratories around the world. Jie Zhang jiezhang@imr.ac.cn Michael Halbig michael.c.halbig@nasa.gov Recognizes the accomplishments of individuals who made similar contributions as James I. Mueller to the Engineering Ceramics Division and to the field of engi- neering ceramics. Recognizes exceptional early-to mid-career professionals who are women and/or underrepresented minorities (i.e., based on race, ethnicity, nationality, and/or geographic location) in the area of ceramic science and engineering. EMSD Outstanding Student Researcher August 1 Charmayne Lonergan clonergan@mst.edu Recognizes exemplary student research related to the mission of ACerS Energy Materials and Systems Division. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 Teachers dive into materials science at the CGIF\'s Ohio workshop Teachers huddle around lab tables, the blue flames of the torches casting a soft glow across their focused faces. With steady hands, they dip copper wires into small piles of borax powder, then carefully return the coated wires to the flames. “Look at that!\" exclaims one teacher as the powder melts and begins to transform into a clear, glass-like bead. Excited conversations fill the room as these simple materials transform before their eyes, demonstrating core scientific principles in engaging, visual ways. This scene captures the essence of the Ceramic and Glass Industry Foundation\'s (CGIF) Magic of Materials Science Workshop, which took place at the Summit County Educational Service Center in Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, on Feb. 28, 2025. CGIF staff spent the day with 28 middle and high school teachers, many from a STEAM cohort that takes a multidisciplinary approach to teach- ing. The workshop equipped these educators with the knowledge and tools to inspire the next generation of ceramic and glass professionals. The seven-hour professional development session allowed teachers to perform all nine hands-on experiments from the CGIF Materials Science Classroom Kit. Throughout the day, educators gained confidence in demonstrating principles of materials science that they can immediately implement in their own classrooms. In addition to the hands-on experimental work, teachers had the oppor- tunity to network with ceramic and glass industry professionals from Saint-Gobain NorPro, Momentive Technologies, GrafTech International Holdings Inc., and Owens Corning during an industry luncheon. These connections help teachers learn about the diverse careers available in the ceramic and glass industries so they can better guide students interested in materials science career paths in their local communities. \"These workshops create a direct connection between classroom learn- ing and real-world applications in the ceramics and glass industries,\" says Marcus Fish, director of development at the CGIF. \"When teachers understand the exciting career opportunities available in materials science, they become powerful advocates who can inspire students to explore these fields.\" CGIF CERAMIC AND GLASS INDUSTRY FOUNDATION B THANK YOU! CERAMIC AND GLASS NorPro Participants in the Magic of Materials Science Workshop at the Summit County Educational Service Center on Feb. 28, 2025. Each participating teacher received a complete Materials Science Classroom Kit (valued at $250) to take back to their classroom, allow- ing them to immediately implement what they learned. Teachers also received supplemental resources highlighting career pathways in mate- rials science, helping students connect these engaging experiments with real-world professional opportunities in ceramic and glass industries. The workshop was made possible through the generous sponsorship from Saint-Gobain NorPro, along with additional funding from donations to the CGIF that support educational programming. Missi Zender-Sakach of the Summit County Educational Service Center played a crucial role in coordinating local logistics, recruiting participants from area schools, and facilitating engaging discussions throughout the workshop. This combined support enabled the CGIF to provide this valuable training opportunity to local educators. For more information about the Magic of Materials Science Workshop or to inquire about bringing a teacher training program to your area, visit foundation.ceramics.org or contact foundation@ceramics.org. Lifetime Membership Enjoy continuous, enhanced benefits in ACers at a reduced cost over time by visiting ceramics.org/lifetime Ready to join? $2,000 USD one-time American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org The American Ceramic Society ceramics.org 15 16 oresearch briefs Credit: Birds of Gilgit-Baltistan, Flickr (CC BY-SA 2.0) Inside the world of brood parasitic birds: The role of grain boundaries in eggshell strength An international group of researchers used imaging techniques and concep- tual frameworks from the field of grain boundary engineering to understand how structural features affect eggshell strength. To date, scientists have typically inferred eggshell strength based on the shell\'s thickness. But these inferences \"underestimate and trivialize the complex eggshell ultra- and microstructure and its specific functional performances,\" the researchers write in an open-access paper. They investigated the eggshells of a wide range of brood parasitic birds. Brood parasitic birds lay their eggs in the nests of others, sparing themselves the expense of rearing their own young. When the eggs hatch, the parasitic chicks compete with the host babies for food and nest space. Host birds have developed various defense strategies against brood para- sites, which the brood parasites then evolve to counter, as explained on the web- page of Georgia-based natural history muse- um Fernbank Science Center. For example, since at least the late 1800s, scientists have reported that parasitic eggshells are often stronger than the host eggs to prevent host birds from puncturing them in rejection. The researchers of the recent study determined that egg- shells featuring lon- ger and more com- plex grain boundary The common cuckoo (pictured above) is a brood parasitic bird, mean- ing they lay their eggs in the nests of others. A recent study explored the structure-strength relationship in brood parasitic eggshells. paths were stronger and tougher than Specialized glass development and manufacturing MO SCI offers a variety of tailored glass materials to match your application. Contact us today to discuss: Glass Formulation Custom Melting Coating Spheroidization Milling & Screening mo.sci www.mo-sci.com 573.364.2338 ISO 9001:2015 AS9100D ITAR Registered eggshells of similar thickness without those characteristics. However, not all parasitic eggshells demonstrated this extra strengthening mechanism. It depended on the specific parasitic spe- cies and host pair, which determined the likelihood of eggshell puncturing being used as a defense strategy. The open-access paper, published in iScience, is \"Avian obligate brood parasitic lineages evolved variable com- plex polycrystalline structures to build tougher eggshells\" (DOI: 10.1016/j. isci.2023.108552). Materials in the news Vehicle-integrated PV modules based on glass fiber-reinforced composites Researchers at AGH University of Krakow and the Eko-Energia AGH student group developed an approach to lightweight, vehicle-integrated photovoltaic modules. The modules employ glass fiber-reinforced sheets on both the front and rear sides of the modules, thus making the modules bifacial and resulting in slightly higher energy output for a given area. For more information, visit https://www.pv-magazine.com/2025/03/17. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 Exploring alternative aggregates: Coral sand could offset use of sea sand in cementitious composites In a recent paper, researchers from Wuhan University of Technology in China investigated the potential of using coral sand as an aggregate in cementitious composites. Coral sand is a type of carbonate sand originating in tropical and subtropical marine environments. Despite its name, coral is not the main component of coral sand. Instead, this sand comes primarily from the bioerosion of limestone skeletal material of marine organisms such as foraminifera, calcareous algae, mollusks, and crustaceans. In their study, the researchers sourced coral sand as well as silici- clastic (silicate-rich) sea sand from the South China Sea. Scanning electron microscopy revealed the coral sand had slightly smaller average particle sizes than the sea sand (120 μm vs 140 μm), and the coral sand exhibited abundant pore structures on its surface. To create the cementitious composites, the researchers mixed varied ratios of coral sand and sea sand with low-calcium fly ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag. A solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate was employed as the alkaline activa- tor for the composite\'s matrix. Additionally, the composite con- tained a modified polycarboxylate-based superplasticizer to improve mixture workability as well as polypropylene fibers to improve tensile ductility and crack control. Testing revealed that as coral sand replaced sea sand in the composite, flowability and drying shrinkage decreased while com- pressive strength experienced an initial rise followed by a decline. Overall, a 20 wt.% coral sand mixture yielded optimal results, with a compressive strength of 54.4 MPa and tensile strain capacity of 2.397% after 28 days. The paper, published in International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology, is \"Sea/coral sand in marine engineered geopolymer composites: Engineering, mechanical, and microstructure proper- ties\" (DOI: 10.1111/ijac.14874). • • • • • Orton High Temperature Viscometers • Up to 1700 °C Log10(Poises): 1.2 to 14.0 Rotating Spindle Viscometer Parallel Plate Viscometer Beam Bending Viscometer Dilatometers Measure Thermal Expansion (CTE) -190°C to 1600°C Softening Point Glass Transition Temperature (Tg) Glass Testing Services Glass Viscosity - Thermal Expansion Annealing Point - Strain Point Softening Point - Liquidus Temperature Flexural Strength - Corrosion Resistance D-C Volume Resistivity Independent Laboratory www.ortonceramic.com GASBARRE POWDER COMPACTION SOLUTIONS 614-895-2663 GLOBAL SUPPORT TEAM ON-SITE SERVICE Engineered Solutions FOR POWDER COMPACTION CNC HYDRAULIC AND ELECTRIC PRESSES Easy to Setup and Flexible for Simple to Complex Parts US fusion code breakthrough slashes stellarator design time to under 10 seconds Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory researchers unveiled a groundbreaking computer code, QUADCOIL, that could greatly accelerate the design of stellarator fusion reactors. Stellarators use complex magnetic fields to confine superheated plasma. Unlike tokamaks, stellarators can operate in a steady-state mode, which is crucial for commercial power generation. However, they rely on intricate, 3D magnetic fields generated by external coils to confine the plasma. QUADCOIL can rapidly evaluate potential magnet design complexity in a mere 10 seconds, helping save time and resources early in the development cycle. For more information, visit https://interesting engineering.com/energy HIGH SPEED PTX PRESSES Repeatable. Reliable. Precise. ролование COLD ISOSTATIC PRESSES Featuring Dry Bag Pressing 814.371.3015 press-sales@gasbarre.com www.gasbarre.com GASBARRE POWDER COMPACTION SOLUTIONS American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 17 18 ●ceramics in the environment Credit: Mariana Lanzarini-Lopes, University of Massachusetts Amherst Ultraviolet-emitting glass prevents biofilm formation in marine environments Researchers led by the University of Massachusetts Amherst, with funding from the U.S. Office of Naval Research, devel- oped a new long-lasting coating to prevent biofouling. Biofouling is a big problem for the U.S. Navy, costing them $180-260 million per year in added fuel use and cleaning costs, according to a study in 2011. Chemical agents are often used to kill fouling organisms, but this method can have negative effects on the ecosystem. The new coating is based on an ultraviolet-emitting glass. Using ultraviolet radiation to disinfect surfaces and air entered the mainstream during the COVID-19 pandemic when it proved very effective at inactivating the SARS-CoV-2 virus. However, employing this method underwater is more challenging. \"We cannot use traditional light sources to distribute light evenly on the surface,\" says lead author Leila Alidokht, postdoc- toral research associate at UMass Amherst, in a UMass Amherst press release. Murkiness in the surrounding water can disrupt the ultraviolet waves, and this uneven distribution of the light gives biofilm-forming microorganisms a foothold—thus leaving the whole surface vulnerable when it spreads. The team\'s solution was to embed light-scattering silica nanoparticles into the glass\'s surface. When an ultraviolet LED is connected to the glass, the light waves bounce off the nanopar- ticles and throughout the glass interior, which enables an evenly \"glowing\" glass surface. FENT A new ultraviolet-emitting glass can reduce visible biofilm growth by 98%. To test the glass\'s effectiveness, the UMass Amherst researchers submerged the ultraviolet-emitting glass in the waters of Port Canaveral, Fla., for 20 days. Compared to untreated glass, the modified glass reduced visible biofilm growth by 98%. The team is now testing long-term applications of the glass and exploring the creation of larger surface areas. They already received a provisional patent for their discovery. The open-access paper, published in Biofilm, is “UV emitting glass: A promising strategy for biofilm inhibition on transparent surfaces\" (DOI: 10.1016/j.bioflm.2024.100186). Uncovering hidden dangers: Fiberglass boats contribute to microplastic contamination in bivalve mollusks Researchers at the Universities of Brighton and Portsmouth in the U.K. investigated the extent to which fiberglass boats contribute to microplastic contamination in bivalve mollusks. Fiberglass boats became popular in the 1960s, but they are less durable and heavier than aluminum boats. Because of the high disposal costs, some owners will choose to abandon their old fiberglass boats in public waters instead. The abandoned boats will eventually degrade, leaking microplastics and other toxic chemicals into the surrounding environment. To gather more exact data on the levels of contamination resulting from this illegal dumping, the U.K. researchers gathered oysters and mussels from several areas in Chichester Harbor, downstream of an active boatyard. They collected the mollusks during both the winter months (coinciding with sea- sonal boat maintenance) and in May (start of a busy schedule for water sport activities). They then used micro-Raman spec- troscopy to identify the chemical composition of glass fibers found in the mollusks. The researchers found the highest fiberglass concentrations during the winter months, with up to 11,220 fiberglass par- ticles per kilogram in oysters and up to 2,740 particles per kilo- gram in mussels. This contamination can have severe conse- quences for the mollusks\' health, as explained in a University of Portsmouth press release. \"Bivalves, being stationary filter feeders, are highly suscep- tible to accumulating these particles, which can severely impact their health. The ingestion of GRP [glass-reinforced plastic] can interfere with their digestive systems, leading to physiologi- cal stress and even death,” the press release states. More research is needed to understand the full scope of effects resulting from this contamination. But regardless, \"Creating a better ethos around end-of-life boat management is crucial to minimize further exposure and spread of these contaminants,\" says first author Corina Ciocan, principal lec- turer in marine biology at the University of Brighton, in the press release. The open-access paper, published in Journal of Hazardous Materials, is \"Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) boats and the impact on coastal environment—Evidence of fiberglass inges- tion by marine bivalves from natural populations” (DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134619). www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 MOF-coated glass vials enable simple, reusable water contaminant testing Starbar and Moly-D elements are made in the U.S.A. with a focus on providing the highest quality heating elements and service to the global market. Credit: Taima-Mancera et al., Advanced Functional Materials [CC BY 4.0) Example of MOF-coated glass vials developed by researchers at the University of La Laguna in Spain. Researchers from the University of La Laguna in Spain dem- onstrated a new way to fabricate stable metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) that are integrated directly into practical devices. MOFs are an emerging material system for water treatment applications. These porous hybrid materials consist of metal ions or clusters interconnected by organic “linker” molecules to form highly ordered hollow structures. Synthesizing MOFs in bulk is challenging. These materials have less robust thermal and mechanical properties than ceramics, so they do not hold up well during traditional processing techniques, thus limiting their adoption in commercial applications. In the new method, MOFs are grown directly onto the inner walls of ordinary glass vials. This process allows the vial to double as both the sample container and extraction device for testing water contaminants. Previous studies attempting to grow MOF coatings inside glass vials were unsuccessful because they relied on conventional polymer linkers that degraded when exposed to common organic solvents. In contrast, the new method uses carboxylate anchoring points rather than polymeric binders to encourage growth of MOF crystallites. The researchers tested their technique using three zirconium- based MOFs known for their stability and tunable pore structures. The MOF coatings successfully extracted trace contaminants from water stored in the vial, with the best result being 90% of contami- nants captured in one hour. After capture, the contaminants could be released from the MOFs in minutes using a simple solvent wash, allowing the preconcentrated substances to be easily analyzed. Rigorous shaking of the vial is typically needed to encourage extraction, but the researchers showed the MOF coating captured contaminants even with only mild or no agitation. In addition, performing the extraction and desorption process dozens of times did not significantly affect the coating\'s extraction efficiency. The open-access paper, published in Advanced Functional Materials, is \"Metal-organic framework-coated glass vials: A step for- ward in analytical platforms” (DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202402517). 60 years of service and reliability 2 ²R I SQUARED R ELEMENT I Squared R Element Co., Inc. Phone: (716)542-5511 Email: sales@isquaredrelement.com www.isquaredrelement.com Call the Experts for all your solids processing Size Reduction Wet & Dry Size Reduction Steel & Ceramic Lined Mills Jars & Jar Rolling Mills Vacuum Drying Dryers & Complete Systems Solids & High Viscosity Mixing Ribbon & Cone Blenders Fluidizing Mixers Sigma Blade Mixers Applications: Ceramics. 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However, because these cells still appeared rectangular in the xz plane, Hah believed that completing the circle in all directions (i.e., making a hemisphere) would improve the absorption performance. His proposed hemispherical-shell-shaped cell consists of an organic polymer called P3HT:ICBA as the active layer placed on a layer of aluminum and a substrate of the synthetic poly- mer PMMA. The cell is capped off with a transparent protec- tive layer of indium tin oxide. Hah modeled his proposed hemispherical-shell-shaped cell on the computer and investigated its potential using 3D finite element analysis. The results showed • Absorption improvements of 66% and 36% when incoming light is transverse electric (TE) and transverse magnetic-polarized (TM), respectively, compared to a flat- structured device. (Electric and magnetic fields are per- pendicular to the direction of propagation.) eins Hemispherical shell ITO (110 nm) P3HT:ICBA (200 nm) Al (200 nm) PMMA substrate Proposed photovoltaic cell structure. Top left: Bird\'s-eye view of a solar cell array with hemispherical-shell-shaped active layers. Bottom left: Unit cell of the dome-shaped device. Bottom right: Cross-section view of the dome-shaped device. • • Absorption improvement is as high as 13% (TE) and 21% (TM) when compared to the semicylindrical shell structure, depending on the polarization of the light. • Angular coverage reached 81 degrees (TE) and 82 degrees (TM), allowing light to enter from a wider range of direc- tions than a flat surface. Credit: Hah, Journal of Photonics for Energy [CC BY 4.0) \"With the improved absorption and omnidirectionality charac- teristics, the proposed hemispherical-shell-shaped active layers will be found beneficial in various application areas,\" Hah concludes. The open-access paper, published in Journal of Photonics for Energy, is \"Hemispherical-shell-shaped organic photovoltaic cells for absorption enhancement and improved angular coverage\" (DOI: 10.1117/1.JPE.14.018501). Honeycomb-shaped bladeless generators for urban wind harvesting The size of wind turbines has grown dramatically in the past two decades, in terms of both height and blade length. While this size increase means each turbine can produce more electricity, it also makes transportation and installation of turbines more difficult, thus hindering their deployment in certain locations. Some companies have developed smaller, alternative devices for harvesting wind energy that can be more easily deployed in urban areas. For example, Spanish technology startup Vortex Bladeless SL offers bladeless wind generators that range in height from 1-13 meters (3.3-42.6 feet), in contrast to the 98-meter (322-feet) height of current utility-scale land-based wind turbines. Recently, news outlets have reported on the development of another bladeless wind generator design by Scottish technol- ogy startup Katrick Technologies. In contrast to the generators offered by Vortex Bladeless, which consist of a single vibrating column, the generators by Katrick Technologies embrace a honeycomb-shaped design. Within each quadrant of Katrick\'s compact hexagonal gen- erator are airfoils that oscillate independently when exposed to 20 A rendering showing how Katrick\'s honeycomb-shaped bladeless wind generators could be installed in urban settings. Credit: Katrick Technologies, YouTube wind. These mechanical oscillations are converted to energy, making the approach more efficient in less windy conditions. On Dec. 14, 2023, Katrick announced that the honeycomb- shaped generator, which was developed in partnership with The Manufacturing Technology Centre, had completed the first stage of alpha testing at the University of Strathclyde and was validated to technology readiness level (TRL) 5. Katrick aims to have the generator validated at TLR 6 during the next stage of testing. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 OVERCOME THE EXTREMES NEED TO COPE WITH EXTREME COLD, HEAT, OR PRESSURE? WORK WITH AMRICC TO ACCELERATE YOUR PRODUCTS TO MARKET As the UK\'s Centre of Excellence for advanced ceramics, The AMRICC Centre offers a range of equipment capable of simulating extreme conditions. Solve your materials development and production challenges in temperatures from -196°C to 3000°C, under 400 MPa of pressure, or in atmospheres such as argon. Hosted & managed by LUCIDEON www.amricc.com The AMRICC Centre ☐ enquiries@amricc.com in www.linkedin.com/company/amricc O bulletin cover story Credit: iStock Prospects for ion-exchange processing of commercial soda-lime-silica glasses By William LaCourse, Jacob Kaspryk, and Benjamin J. A. Moulton lon-exchange processing has been used to improve the mechanical properties of many specialty glass compositions. But its potential for similar use with commercial-grade soda-lime-silica glasses remains to be explored. ioactive glass, smartphone cover glass, solid-state glass batteries—these cutting- edge materials and innovative applications implicitly announce \"Welcome to The Age of Glass!\"1 Glass is certainly not a new material—it has helped advance the quality of life for millennia in the forms of containers, win- dows, and adornments. But our ability to design and produce specialty glasses for applications spanning healthcare, com- munications, and astronomy, among others, has led us into an epoch where glass plays an integral role in transforming society for the better. Novel glass compositions, such as LionGlass (see page 40 in this issue), are one core component of advancing the Glass Age. But so, too, is the development of state-of-the-art processing tech- niques and technologies, which can help improve the carbon footprint and material properties of existing glass compositions. 22 22 Chemical strengthening, or ion exchange (IOX), is one electrical properties of a formed glass. While the technique has processing approach that can alter the mechanical, optical, and largely been applied to specialty glass compositions (more on that below), this article considers the potential of using IOX to improve the production of commercial-grade soda-lime-silica (SLS) glasses and identifies factors that could either accelerate or slow future advances. Kinetics and mechanics of the IOX process IOX strengthening of glass results from the interdiffusion- controlled removal of a small radius ion (typically sodium, Na*, radius ~0.10 nm) and replacement with a larger ion (typically potassium, K*, radius ~0.12 nm). This exchange is achieved by placing the glass in an IOX bath containing a source of K* ions, usually liquid KNO3.² 2 When the potassium ion comes to occupy the sodium ion site, the site must expand to accommodate the larger ion. Because the glass is a solid during this process, it cannot easily www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 Ion Exchange Strengthening - IOX Strain varies with position due to the nature of IOX V₁: 1 cm³ AV = xcom(rk - rkw)] Vo Na Ionic radii of Na+ IK: Ionic radii of K+ Co: Number of Na+ per cm³ in base glass X: Fraction of Na* exchanged, function of depth The number of K+ & Na+ assumed constant Pre-existing cracks and cracks created subsequent to compressive stress will experience different stress and crack-tip chemistry Stress can be estimated 1 XCE σcomp = Aπ(r-ra)] 31-2μ A: Constant E: Young\'s Modulus u: Poisson Ratio 120 100 80 § 60 20 25 50 75 100 125 Depth into Surface (microns) SLS glass max: ~600 MPa Figure 1. (Upper left) General equation for strain due to IOX. (Upper right) Equation for surface compressive stress due to IOX. The correction factor, termed \"A,\" recognizes that the sites occu- pied by the two ions may not be spherical. (Bottom right) Example maximum diffusion distance and relative concentration of sodium and potassium ions in IOX SLS glass, determined using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Adapted from Reference 3. change structure, so expansion of the smaller ion site causes compression of the structure between the two ions. The equa- tion modeling this compressive stress can be seen in Figure 1.³ Compressive stresses as high as 1,200 MPa have been obtained in aluminosilicate glasses and as high as 800 MPa in SLS glasses. Because the IOX process puts significant strain on the glass, IOX is best carried out at least 50°C below the glass\'s strain point (i.e., the temperature where the viscosity of the glass is 1013.5 Pa⚫s). If the glass was processed at the strain point, it would take about four hours to fully relax any IOX-induced stress. The strain point for commercial SLS glasses is near 500-510°C, whereas alkali aluminosilicates are much higher, in the range of 570-650°C. The depth of layer (DOL), i.e., the depth from the surface at which the ion exchange process occurs, can be determined using Equation 1. It relates DOL to a single diffusion coefficient D, which describes the effective diffusion coefficients of the two mobile ions, and the time dependence of the penetration as described by the root mean square penetration distance, drms. DOL =√3 dms, where drms = (2D⚫t) 0.5 Equation 1 In general, a deeper DOL leads to improved mechanical properties and fracture resistance. IOX successes with non-SLS glasses As noted in the introduction, IOX to date has largely been applied to specialty glass compositions. Cover glasses such as DragonTail (Asahi, Japan), Gorilla Glass (Corning Inc., U.S.), and Panda Glass (Tungshu Group, China) are examples of IOX sodium aluminosilicate glasses, while the cover glass Xensation (Schott, Germany) is an example of an IOX lithium boroaluminosilicate glass. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org Credit: Jacob Kaspryk The success of these products lies with the ways composi- tion affects structure. Specifically, two important changes occur when Al2O3 and/or B2O3 are added to the base sodium silicate composition. First, the weak NBO bonds are replaced by much stronger Al-O-Si or B-O-Si bonds. Typically, the alu- minum (A13+) or boron (B³+) ions share four oxygens, each of which form four strong “bridging” oxygens (Al-O-Si). Second, following IOX, alkali ions no longer bond to nonbridging oxy- gen ions. Instead, they bond less strongly to negatively charged structures associated with (Al-O4)¯ tetrahedra, which leads to increased mobility of the alkali ions. Thanks to these two changes, the IOX cover glasses demonstrate increased scratch and drop resistance. The one major downside of IOX specialty glasses is their more energy-intensive manufacturing process. The reduced NBO content in aluminosilicate and boroaluminosilicate glasses causes these compositions to have increased viscosities, which requires the glass to be processed at noticeably higher temperatures—which translates to much higher production costs. For example, melting temperatures for Gorilla Glass, DragonTrail, and Xensation are roughly 100-200°C higher than for SLS glasses. Gorilla Glass windshields for a Jeep Wrangler can reach $1,000,5 for example, about three times more expen- sive than a conventional SLS glass windshield. Despite the increased production costs, superior properties such as scratch resistance and compressive strength reaching 1,200 MPa justify the expenditure for certain applications. Challenges with IOX processing of SLS glasses The sale of and market for IOX glass products have grown since Gorilla Glass\'s debut in the original iPhone in 2007.6 However, IOX and other specialty glass compositions, such as fiberglass, still only account for approximately 10% of the global glass market-the other 90% is taken up by SLS glasses in the form of float glass and containers. There are surprisingly few differences in SLS composition across different products and companies, as shown in Table 1.3,7 The major compositional difference between float glass and container glass is a lower MgO content compensated for by increased CaO in container glass. Obviously, there are cost benefits to using a single, base glass composition to mass produce multiple products. But the cur- rent base SLS composition and form factor presents some chal- lenges to processing SLS glass using chemical strengthening. Modern float (\"flat\") glass is made by floating molten glass on a bath of molten tin. As the name “flat” implies, float glass factories produce limited shape variations, with the major dif- ference being glass thickness. The process can produce plates as thin as 0.4 mm and up to 25 mm thickness, allowing a wide range of products to be produced using the same composition. Some factories can produce 800-1,200 tons per day of SLS glass. Different lengths and widths can be cut from the stan- dardized sheets, and different colors are obtained in-house by performing post-forming surface treatments. Other post-forming treatments, such as thermal tempering or IOX processing, take place in secondary manufacturing facilities. 23 Prospects for ion-exchange processing of commercial soda-lime-silica glasses Glass ID Time (h) Total Composition (Mol %) Depth 24 (h) To reach DOL= 50 μm Alkali Arb. Units SiO2 Al₂O3 CaO MgO Na₂O K₂O Float 1 71.6 0.06 9.3 5.7 13.2 29 72 5.4 Float 2 71.6 0.97 9.1 5.0 13.2 0.2 36 48 2.8 Float 4 71.0 0.85 8.3 5.7 13.3 0.6 39 39 2.8 Container 6 73.4 0.95 11.0 0.1 14.5 40 38 5.6 Float 8 71.9 0.83 8.8 5.2 12.6 0.2 33 54 2.1 Float 10 71.2 0.36 9.3 5.6 13.1 0.1 33 54 3.7 Float 17 71.7 0.35 9.1 5.2 13.0 0.1 27 85 5.1 Float 16 67.0 2.00 8.5 4.6 17.4 0.4 51 24 6.5 DOE 69.8 0.25 5.3 8.0 15.2 1.5 67.4 14 DOE 69.0 0.25 5.8 7.5 14.5 3.0 70.6 13 7.0 DOE 70.0 0.50 5.8 7.8 15.5 0.5 57.4 19 6.2 Gorilla® Glass 3 CODE 2318 Treated at 430°C, 2 h, DOL of 75 μm Table 1. Composition and properties of some commercial and experimental SLS glasses. Includes maximum depth of layer (DOL) for a 24-hour ion exchange period at 450°C; the time required to achieve a 50 µm DOL; and chemical durability as measured by the amount of sodium leached per gram of glass in one hour. For float samples, the DOL was measured on the air side of the floating glass because glass on the molten tin side exhibits a lower diffusion rate that varies with thickness due to the different contact times of the glass and molten tin. Adapted from Reference 3. 24 The mixed alkali effect in IOX SLS glass processing When comparing the change in DOL between compositions A and B in Table 2, it is evident composition B, which had no K₂O in the base starting glass, showed much smaller effects. We attribute the larger effects in composition A to the mixed alkali effect.a In terms of ionic conductivity, a simple definition of the mixed alkali effect is that the conductivity decreases upon substitution of a second alkali. While this definition is technically correct, it does not explain why this decrease occurs. The reason for this decrease is that ionic conductivity is controlled by the fastest-diffusing ion, i.e., sodium, while interdiffusion of the ions is controlled by the slowest diffusing ion, i.e., potassium. As more potassium ions are substituted for sodium ions, the potassium diffusion coefficient increases while the sodium diffusion coefficient decreases due to blocking by the potassium ions. As we know from Equation 1, the diffusion coefficient D is based on the effective diffusion coefficients of the two mobile ions. Because this value is larger in composition A, which contained K20 in the base starting glass, the ions can achieve a deeper DOL than in composition B. Reference aB. J. A. Moulton and G. S. Henderson, “Glasses: Alkali and alkaline-earth silicates,\" Encyclopedia of Materials: Technical Ceramics and Glasses 2021, 2: 462-482. Credit: Jacob Kaspryk As stated earlier, a deeper DOL during IOX processing typically leads to greater resistance to cracking and fracture. But as seen in Table 1, the DOL for all com- mercial SLS compositions is extremely low, ranging from 24-51 µm after a 24-hour treatment at 450°C. In contrast, Gorilla Glass (last line in Table 1) develops a DOL of more than 50 µm following treatment for two hours at 430°C. Achieving a DOL of 50 μm in commer- cial SLS compositions requires exposure times between 24-85 hours. And even then, surface compression strengths of 800 MPa or more cannot be reached consistently. Because most SLS glass applications do not require high strength, some may assume IOX processing of SLS glass is not a worth- while pursuit. However, there is one big advantage to subjecting SLS glass to IOX processing: lightweighting. Lightweighting involves making an object weigh less without compromising its mechanical properties or performance. Successful lightweighting reduces raw material requirements, which translates to reduced manufacturing and shipping costs, among other benefits. High-volume markets for lightweight glass products include energy (e.g., solar panels) and transportation (e.g., windshields for cars, aircraft, and boats). In the former case, reducing solar panel thickness from 3 mm to 2 mm would reduce its weight by more than 30%, making installation easier and reduc- ing the need for structural reinforcement. In the latter case, a 10% reduction in vehicle weight can improve fuel economy by 6-8%.8 Lightweighting also has benefits in com- mercial and residential construction. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that drafts, leaks, and inefficiencies cost U.S. households at least $25 billion dollars each year. By lightweighting glass windows, new three- and four-pane windows can be fabricated that are comparable in thickness to typical double-pane windows but with highly improved insulation capabilities.10 Both thermal and chemical processing treatments can be used for lightweighting. However, thermal tempering becomes dra- matically less effective at glass thicknesses less than 3 mm, while IOX maintains its strengthening ability—thus making it the preferred approach for certain energy and construction applications. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 IOX specialty glasses are starting to be used for these lightweighting applications, for example, the Gorilla Glass automotive windshields mentioned earlier. But if SLS glasses could achieve DOLS of 50 μm within exposure times only 20-30% longer than aluminosilicates—rather than the current 10 times or more-they could offer similar benefits at a more affordable cost due to the lower melting temperature. Thus, there is a strong incentive to overcome the challenges with IOX processing of SLS glasses. Current successes and possible solutions to IOX SLS glass processing In Table 1, commercial composition Float 16 came close to achieving the threshold 50 µm DOL within an exposure time only 20-30% longer than aluminosilicates. However, that com- position is no longer produced. Some modified SLS compositions have reached the thresh- old 50 μm DOL in less than 20 hours. For example, the three experimental compositions created as part of a U.S. Department of Energy project (labeled DOE in Table 1) achieved the required threshold in 14, 13, and 19 hours, respectively. We also achieved the desired threshold in experiments con- ducted at Alfred University.\" As seen in Table 2,³ composition A (X = 4, 6, or 8) achieved the threshold 50 µm DOL when processed for 16 hours at 450°C. (Additional interesting find- ings in the Alfred experiment are detailed in the sidebar \"The mixed alkali effect in IOX SLS glass processing.\") Though the experimental glasses (DOE compositions in Table 1 and composition A in Table 2) achieved sufficiently deep DOLS in much shorter times, the successful compositions are noticeably different from commercial SLS glasses. Because mechanical-property relationships in IOX glass surfaces can be quite complicated, tweaking compositions to provide improve- ment in one property may not benefit other properties. For example, Figure 2 shows the DOL versus compressive strength for some standard and IOX SLS glasses based on composition A in Table 2.3,11 While IOX processing generally results in higher compressive strength, surprisingly, initial four- point bending tests found the commercial float glass composi- tion had the highest compressive strength despite having the lowest DOL value (25 µm). The commercial float glass com- position\'s compressive strength did decrease dramatically after abrasion, however, and came in last upon retesting. Because of the different properties between standard SLS glass and IOX SLS glass, manufacturers would need to process IOX SLS glass separately from the standard SLS glass to avoid contamination. But unfortunately, constructing a new facility for IOX SLS glass would be a costly addition that could only be justified by a large market for IOX SLS glass. Instead of an entirely new facility, it may be possible to adopt a production strategy used for colored container glasses: multiple forehearths on a single melter. Currently, float glass is produced using a single melter and a single forehearth, i.e., a reservoir for holding the molten material before it is poured or withdrawn for further processing. In contrast, colored container glass pro- duction involves directing the molten material into multiple American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org Glass A: 11Na₂O-4K20-(10-X)CaO-XMgO-3Al2O3-72SiO2 X (MgO) Maximum Exchange Depth (μm) 16 h 400°C 25 h 400°C* 16 h 450°C 25 h 450°C* 0 23 29 42 53 2 28 35 43 54 4 29 36 62 78 6 32 40 65 81 8 31 39 53 66 Glass B: 15Na2O-(10-X)CaO-XMgO-75SiO2 16 h 400°C 25 h 400°C* 16 h 25 h 450°C 450°C* 0 16 20 31 39 2 19 31 35 44 4 23 29 38 48 * Data for 25 h calculated from 16 h data assuming t¹/2 dependence Table 2. Depth of layer for two compositions of MgO-containing SLS glasses. Adapted from Reference 3. Probability of Failure (%) Probability of Failure (%) 99.9 93.4 63.2 30.7 12.6 Exchanged 16hr@450C Not Abraded 4.8 1.8 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 Ln σ (MPa) 99.9 93.4 63.2 30.7 12.6 4.8 Exchanged 16hr@450C Abraded 1.8 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 Ln σ (MPa) ◆A-0% 42 microns ■■B-2% 43 microns ▲ C-4% 62.5 microns XD-6% 65 microns XE-8% 53 microns Float -25 microns ◆ A - 0% 42 microns B-2% 43 microns ▲ C-4% 62.5 microns D-6% 65 microns XE - 8% 53 microns ⚫Float -25 microns Figure 2. Weibull statistics (probability of failure) versus load. Combined strengthening effects using the mixed alkali glass with 11 mol% Na₂O and 4 mol% K₂O and substitution of up to 8 mol% Mg2+ for Ca2+ samples of composition A from Table 2. An increase in the Mg2+ concentration caused a rapid increase in DOL and a corresponding increase in abrasion resistance. The commercial SLS glass (green data points) showed excellent strengthening (top curves) but poor abrasion resistance due to the low DOL. Other studies at Alfred suggest that DOL levels of 40 μm or more are required to avoid large strength decreases by impact or scratching. Adapted from Reference 3. 25 Credit: Jacob Kaspryk Credit: Jacob Kaspryk Prospects for ion-exchange processing of commercial soda-lime-silica glasses A B 100 μη 100 με D E 50 μm 25 μm Credit: A-D: Ruth; E: Vitch 16 Figure 3. A-D: Various surface flaws in SLS glass after IOX treatment in AgNO3. (A) Vickers inden- tation, 2 kg; (B,D) blunt indentation, 60 kg; (C) scratch, 200x magnification. White highlighted part is indicative of the presence of silver via scanning electron microscopy backscatter imagery of the cross section. E: Top-down view of acid-etched SLS to demonstrate the complexity of surface flaw geometry. The flaw was caused by dropping a 1-mm-diameter silicon carbide ball on the glass. Republished with permission from References 16 and 17. forehearths, which permits changes to the glass in small batches rather than committing the entire melt to a single color. If this multi-forehearth setup was used for float glass, it would permit changes in the bulk composition without committing the entire melt to the modified SLS composi- tion. Conversations with people familiar with coloring forehearths suggest that compositional modifications on the order of 5-8% would be \"easy\" and that larger changes might be possible. A lecture on the potential of this multi- forehearth approach was given at the 84th Conference on Glass Problems, 12 and the presentation is available upon request. Such an approach to flat glass production may seem a bit far out, but as the market demand for lightweighting SLS glass products grows, it will be essential to consider this and other approaches to making IOX SLS processing economically fea- sible. Below are two more approaches that could help in real- izing this market opportunity. Suggestion 1: Noncompositional methods for accelerated IOX processes Methods that do not require significant compositional modifications to achieve accelerated IOX processing times are important to consider. Even simple approaches, such as using a programed nonisothermal IOX process, 13 could allow rapid diffusion by starting at a high temperature (450-475°C) fol- lowed by programed cooling to avoid relaxation effects. Ultrasound-assisted diffusion could also help increase dif- fusion rates. 14,15 Theory indicates that the probability of ion 26 diffusion increases more in the direction of increasing tension than it decreases in the direction of increased compression. The effect is small for a given cycle, but at high frequencies, the effect will be magnified. There is, however, a possible negative effect-the extra energy of the vibrations might cause relaxation at lower temperatures than predicted, resulting in a loss of the stress-induced diffu- sion. It is known that both effects can occur, but the impor- tance of the effects and the temperature dependences are not known. These factors need to be investigated. Suggestion 2: Effects of preexisting flaws in IOX glass Most discussions regarding IOX processing focus on improv ing the glass to avoid scratches and impact damage. But what if it is too late? What if the glass was scratched or damaged during removal from the production line or in transit to the secondary manufacturing facility? While some surface flaws cannot be strengthened by IOX, such as half-penny cracks caused by Vickers indentation, oth- ers can benefit from the IOX process. For example, some surface crack geometries are such that the IOX bath is drawn into the crack by capillary action and by interdiffusion along the remaining distance to the crack tip. Figure 3 shows a few cases in which the ion-exchange liquid, doped with AgNO3 to increase visibility under scanning electron microscopy, shows penetrations of as much as 100 µm. 16,17 As the IOX process progresses, the crack opening may narrow due to the IOX- induced glass expansion. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 There are still a lot of unknowns regarding how preexisting flaws affect the IOX process. Studies that provide more infor- mation would be worthwhile. Ultimately, there is much to be learned—and, conversely, much opportunity to be lost-when it comes to IOX processing of SLS glass. By engaging researchers in academia, government, and industry, we can successfully identify factors that could either accelerate or slow IOX SLS glass advances and ideally open the door to the commercial success of new chemically strengthened glass products. We can then introduce and wel- come everyone to the new (and more advanced) Glass Age. About the authors William LaCourse is emeritus professor of glass science, Jacob Kaspryk is a graduate student in glass science, and Benjamin J. A. Moulton is assistant professor of glass science and engineering at Alfred University in New York. Contact LaCourse at lacourse@alfred.edu. References ¹J. Ballato et al., “Affirmation of The Age of Glass,\" Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull. 2024, 103(9): 4-5. ²G. Macrelli, J. C. Mauro, and A. K. Varshneya, “Coupling of diffu- sion and chemical stress: The case of ion exchange in glass,\" Journal of the American Ceramic Society 2021, 104(11): 5599-5613. 3W. C. LaCourse, “Design of SLS compositions for accelerated chemi- cal strengthening,\" Ceramic Engineering and Science Proceedings 2018, 39: 181-189. 4K. J. Rao, Structural Chemistry of Glasses. Elsevier Science: New York, 2002. p. 568 5\"Corning Gorilla Glass for automotive exteriors,\" Corning. Accessed 3 April 2025. https://bit.ly/Corning-Gorilla-Glass- automotive-exteriors 6S. Berneschi, G. C. Righini, and S. Pelli, \"Towards a glass new world: The role of ion-exchange in modern technology,” Applied Sciences 2021, 11(10): 4610-4646. 7C. W. Sinton, W. C. LaCourse, M. J. O\'Connell, “Variations in K*-Na* ion exchange depth in commercial and experimental float glass compositions,\" Materials Research Bulletin 1999, 34(14-15): 2351-2359. \"Lightweight materials for cars and trucks,\" U.S. Department of Energy. Accessed 1 April 2025. https://www.energy.gov/eere/ vehicles/lightweight-materials-cars-and-trucks 9\"Why energy efficiency matters,” U.S. Department of Energy. Accessed 3 April 2025. https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/why- energy-efficiency-matters 1ºC. Mims, \"A piece of glass thinner than a credit card could solve America\'s $25 billion energy problem,\" The Wall Street Journal. Published 21 March 2025. Accessed 3 April 2025. https://www.wsj. com/business/corning-window-gorilla-glass-4f443b07 11M. J. O\'Connell, “The effects of MgO replacement of CaO on the ion exchange behavior.\" M.S. thesis, Alfred University, 1998. Supervised by William C. LaCourse. 12W. C. LaCourse, D. Swiler, M. Choudhary, A. Cormack, and S. K. Sundaram, \"Accelerated melting and homogenization for single melter and multi-forehearth processes.\" Presented at the 84th Conference on Glass Problems, November 2023, Columbus, Ohio. Contact LaCourse at lacourse@alfred.edu for a shortened version of this material. 13J. Shen and D. J. Green, \"Variable temperature ion-exchanged engi- neered stress profile glasses,\" Journal of the American Ceramic Society 2003, 86(11), 1979-1981. 14H. Wang, \"Sonic strengthening effect on soda-lime silicate glass,\" M.S. thesis, Alfred University, 1991. Supervised by William C. LaCourse. 15V. Geyer, \"Ultrasonic-assisted ion exchange in commercial float glass,\" M.S. thesis, Alfred University, 1994. Supervised by William C. LaCourse. 16S. M. Vitch, \"The effect of flaw origin on the ion-exchange strength- ening of glass,\" M.S. thesis, Alfred University, 1988. Supervised by William C. LaCourse. 17K. Ruth, \"Direct observation of ion exchange in flaw damaged glasses,\" M.S. thesis, Alfred University, 1991. Supervised by William C. LaCourse. The American Ceramic Society ceramics.org Find your path with The American Ceramic Society (ACers) Material Advantage Student Program Global Graduate Researcher Network $30 USD $30 USD Associate Membership $40 USD *First year complimentary Where do you see yourself? ACers will help you get there! View a full list of ACerS membership benefits at ceramics.org/memberbenefits. Sign up for your membership with The American Ceramic Society today at ceramics.org/join. Individual Membership $120 USD American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 27 The evolution and importance of car windshields in automotive design By Lisa McDonald 65-250 MICHIGAN 1933 An early safety feature adopted by car manufacturers was laminated windshield glass. Introduced in the late 1920s, laminated glass kept glass shards in place after impact. This 1931 photograph shows the shattered laminated windshield of a Ford Model A. he car windshield is a fundamental The component of modern vehicles, pro- viding essential visibility for drivers while safe- guarding against environmental elements. While modern drivers may take the car windshield for granted, the history of this component reflects significant advancements in automotive design, marked by continuous innovations aimed at improving safety and comfort for both drivers and passengers. Early windshields and potential dangers During the first decade of automotive production in the 1890s, cars were essentially open carriages without any form of glass protection. But as cars became faster and more widely used, the need for a barrier to protect drivers and passengers from wind, road debris, and inclement weather became evident. The first car windshields debuted near the turn of the 20th century as an optional add-on for cars.¹ U.S. automobile brand Oldsmobile became the first car manufacturer to make windshields a standard feature in 1915,² and other car manu- facturers followed soon after. These early windshields were far from perfect-they were constructed out of standard plate glass, and their propensity to shatter upon impact could lead to severe injuries for drivers and passengers alike. 28 Development of laminated glass Laminated glass is a type of safety glass consisting of two or more glass layers held together with a transparent adhesive interlayer. This interlayer prevents the glass from breaking into large, sharp pieces. In 1903, French chemist and painter Edouard Benedictus made the accidental discovery that a thin layer of cellulose nitrate can keep glass from shattering when he knocked a bottle off the shelf and the broken pieces held together. While initially he did not think anything more about this curious accident, reports of drivers and passengers harmed by broken glass in cars caused Benedictus to investigate the bottle further, leading him to discover the cellulose nitrate coating the bro- ken pieces. He then used this knowledge to develop an early form of laminated glass. As reported in an article by Rasmussen,³ Benedictus received a patent for his laminated glass in 1909, three years after fellow inventor John C. Wood of England patented an early form of laminated glass in 1906. However, Wood\'s invention lan- guished due to technical difficulties in its fabrication, and so Benedictus\'s invention became the basis for the first commer- cial laminated glass products. In 1912, Reginald Delpech founded the English Triplex Safety Glass Company to produce laminated glass based on Benedictus\'s invention. The production cost of the brand name Triplex glass initially limited its market reach, but the www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 Credit: Collections of The Henry Ford [Gift of Ford Motor Company) outbreak of World War I in 1914 created significant demand for Triplex glass in military applications, such as airplane and automobile windshields, bulletproof glass for tanks, glass for submarines, battleship-bridge windows, and lenses for gas masks and aviator goggles.³ Advancements in windshield design Though laminated glass started being used in windshields during World War I, it was not until 1927 that it became a standard feature in cars with the introduction of the Ford Model A.3 This first version of safety glass still had drawbacks, however, as explained by ceramic engineer Fred Dimock in a Model T Ford Forum discussion.4 \"In medium accidents, the glass broke and the plastic acted like a balloon as the occupant was thrust into it. The result was that the balloon effect acted somewhat like an air bag or cushion as the person hit it,” he explains. “The problem was with more severe accidents, where the broken inner glass acted like a knife and it cut the plastic liner. The occupant was then thrust through the resultant hole, and the edges of the glass shredded him. If the person was unlucky enough to only go part way through the windshield, he was caught in a Chinese finger puzzle and received significant lacerations.\" In the early 1930s, five companies joined forces to research and develop an improved interlayer material for automotive laminated glass. By the end, only DuPont and Monsanto remained as development partners, and their innovative poly- vinyl butyral (PVB) resin interlayer had improved visibility and penetration resistance compared to the traditional celluloid interlayer.5 PVB is now the most common interlayer used around the world in laminated glass. Alongside developments in laminated glass, advancements in tempered glass for automobile applications took place. Tempered glass is a type of safety glass that undergoes a ther- mal or chemical treatment process so that it will break into small, rounded chunks rather than sharp, jagged shards. In 1938, Pittsburgh Plate Glass introduced the tempered glass product Herculite to the automobile market. Today, tempered glass is mainly used for side and rear windows while laminated glass remains the top choice for windshields. The 1960s and 1970s marked a pivotal period for the automotive industry, with the introduction of various safety standards and regulations for windshields. It also saw the rise of value-added glass products for cars. Value-added glass offers additional functionalities beyond basic transparency. Early value-added automotive glass products included tinted wind- shields for glare reduction and ultraviolet protection. Recently, windshields with in-built sensors are taking value-added glass products to the next level. (Learn more about value-added glass products on page 8 in this issue.) Recycling laminated windshields Though the use of laminated windshield glass has greatly improved the safety of contemporary vehicles, the polymeric interlayer in this glass complicates the recycling and reuse of end-of-life windshields. Fortunately, more companies are start- American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org ing to invest time and resources in developing improved recy- cling schemes for used windshields. One company working to recycle used windshields is Maltha Glass Recycling, a Netherlands-based subsidiary of waste-to-product company Renewi (Milton Keynes, U.K.). The company recently developed a technology that extracts 99.5% of glass from used windshields while also recovering the bind- ing resin PVB. This technology enables circularity in the pro- duction of new products, which previously would have been disposed of as waste. In conclusion, the history of car windshields exemplifies the evolution of automotive design. With ongoing advancements in materials and technology, car windshields continue to be a crucial element in ensuring the safety and comfort of both drivers and passengers on the road. Acknowledgments The author thanks Kevin Bell, managing director at Maltha Glass Recycling Group (Heijningen, Netherlands), for shar- ing some of the history surrounding car windshields on his LinkedIn, thus sparking the idea for this article. About the author Lisa McDonald is editor and science writer at The American Ceramic Society (Westerville, Ohio). Contact McDonald at lmcdonald@ceramics.org. References 1\"The history of the windshield,\" Alfa Auto Glass. Accessed 2 April 2025. https://alfaautoglass.com/the-history-of-the-windshield 2C. Florea, \"20 ways Oldsmobile revolutionized the car industry,\" Auto Evolution. Published 17 Sept. 2023. Accessed 2 April 2025. https://www.autoevolution.com/news/20-ways-oldsmobile-revolutionized- the-car-industry-221159.html ³S. C. Rasmussen, \"Art and inspiration: Edouard Benedictus and the invention of laminated safety glass,\" ChemPlusChem 2025, 90(1): e202400572. 4\"Forum 2011: A brief windshield glass history with a Model T tie in,\" Model T Ford Club of America. Accessed 2 April 2025. http://www.mtfca.com/discus/messages/179374/187215.html 5L. Moeyersons, \"History of (PVB) laminated glass in automotive,\" Glasson Web. Published 1 March 2023. Accessed 2 April 2025. https://www.glassonweb.com/article/history-pvb-laminated-glass- automotive-luc-moeyersons 6\"Herculite glass test with automobile,\" Historic Pittsburgh. Accessed 2 April 2025. https://historicpittsburgh.org/islandora/object/ pitt:20170227-hpichswp-0048 7R. Contreras, \"Innovations in the 1960s and 1970s,\" Tucson Auto Tint & Glass. Accessed 2 April 2025. https://www.tucsonsbestautotint.com/ innovations-in-the-1960s-and-1970s 8\"Maltha Glass Recycling invests in laminated glass recycling,\" Maltha Glass Recycling. Published 16 Jan. 2025. Accessed 2 April 2025. https://www.maltha-glassrecycling.com/en/news/maltha-glass- recycling-investeert-in-recyclage-gelaagd-glas 29 30 30 The untold history of the glass transition By Sofia F. Mauro and John C. Mauro Credit: iStock The nature of glass is inextricably tied to its thermal his- tory through the glass transition. But what of the history of the glass transition itself? This article explores the origin of this scientific concept, tracing its beginnings to an unlikely source. The glass transition is the corner- ☐ stone of glass science, essential for the existence of the glassy state and responsible for its defining character- istics. In fact, \"glass transition\" is the second-most popular keyword used in publications related to glass science and technology.¹ Despite the fundamental importance of this phenome- non in advancing glass science and technology, the origin of the glass transition as a concept is not well known. This article takes readers on a journey through the glass transition literature starting in the mid-20th century and going back to the late 19th century, with the goal of dis- covering which scientist can be credited with the earliest accurate description of the glass transition phenomenon. Defining the glass transition Many theories regarding the nature of glass have been proposed over the years. These notions vary from glass as a fourth state of matter, a colloidal “jelly\" con- taining suspended microcrystals, a mesomorphic state,² an agglomeration of quartz crystals,³ and the result of a second-order thermodynamic phase transition.4 By modern understanding, glass is neither a solid nor a liquid but instead a phase beyond these equilibrium states. This rather unintuitive phase is defined by the concept of the glass transition.5 The glass transition is the “continuous transformation of a supercooled liquid into a glassy state upon cooling to sufficiently low temperatures,” which must be accom- plished at a sufficiently rapid rate to avoid crystallization.6 In other words, a glass is formed when the atomic struc- ture of a liquid is frozen in without the time to rearrange itself into a crystal. Based on this definition, it is clear that the glass transition is not a thermodynamic phase transition but rather a kinetic transition with an intrinsic dependence on time. Hence, the temperature at which a supercooled liquid becomes a glass cannot be pinpointed to a single critical temperature. Rather, a glass may be described by the temperature range over which it vitrifies (transforms into a glassy state) and the associated quenching rate. Even once a supercooled liquid has transformed into a glassy state, this state is not thermodynamically stable. In other words, the material will continually drive toward equilibrium by gradually relaxing back toward the super- cooled liquid state. Eventually, it will undergo a first-order thermodynamic phase transition as it crystallizes to a stable equilibrium. For many common glasses, the relaxation and crystallization processes occur at infinitesimal rates at room temperature, too slow to observe on a human time scale. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 Occurrence Rate 0.000000150% - 0.000000100%- 0.000000050%- \"glass transition\" 0.000000000% + 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Figure 1. This plot shows the usage of the term \"glass transition” in published works, based on the Google corpus of printed sources, which consists primarily of books. The first peak corresponds to the year 1952. History of the glass transition According to an n-gram analysis using Google\'s Ngram Viewer (Figure 1), a tool that tallies the frequency of words in the Google corpus of printed sources (primarily books), the term \"glass transition\" began a dramatic increase in usage around 1952. This increase immediately follows the publication of Walter Kauzmann\'s landmark 1948 paper, “The nature of the glassy state and the behavior of liquids at low temperatures.\" While controversial, the paper accurately describes the glass transition as a continuous process that \"occurs too slowly at low temperatures to permit thermody- namic equilibrium to be established.\"7 Although the phrase \"glass transition\" was popularized follow- ing the publication of Kauzmann\'s paper, the phenomenon of the glass transition was described and discussed decades before the term was formally coined and in common use. For example, 15 years before Kauzmann\'s work and one tick prior on the timeline in Figure 2, Jesse Littleton published the 1933 paper \"Critical temperatures in silicate glasses.” In that paper, he states that \"there seems to be no positive evidence of any critical tem- peratures existing on the thermal expansion curves of glasses,\" and that any critical temperature would be more accurately described as a \"transformation ‘zone\' or \'region,\' where the equi- librium process is retarded by the high viscosity of the material.”8 One year earlier, W.H. Zachariasen\'s 1932 paper, “The atomic arrangement in glass,\" established a foundation for glass science by examining how glass forms on an atomic level. He describes the structure of glass as one infinitely large unit cell due to the lack of periodicity in the material. He then gives an atomic explanation for why glasses have a seemingly continuous transition between liquid and solid-whereas many sources from the same period give only empirical justifica- tions and concludes with: \"...it is impossible to say at which temperature a given glass passes from the solid to the liquid state.\"9 However, his discussion of the glass transition is brief because his work focuses on the rules governing the noncrystal- line structure of glass. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org Moving back in time to 1927, Parks and Huffman state that \"the transition between the glass and liquid is more indefinite. Instead of a mere point, there seems to be a transitional range of temperature in which there occurs a relatively great and rather abrupt change in specific heat, viscosity, coefficient of expan- sion, [and] dielectric constant.\"2 They label the glass transition as a softening temperature and propose glass to be a fourth state of matter with characteristics of a liquid and a crystal. Although viscosity does not exhibit an abrupt change at the glass transi- tion, and the term “state” as used in their work inaccurately implies thermodynamic equilibrium, the authors were correct in clarifying that glass is different from a supercooled liquid—its origin-and from a crystalline solid, which bears a similar out- ward resemblance and mechanical properties. Earlier, in 1903, Gustav Tammann wrote a widely cir- culated textbook called The States of Aggregation, translated to English in 1925. Unlike Parks and Huffman, Tammann does not distinguish glass from the supercooled liquid state, claiming that it is \"justifiable to consider glasses as under- cooled liquids.\" However, he proposes that any liquid can be supercooled-and, according to his logic, become a glass-if quenched rapidly enough: \"Therefore, if a substance be cooled rapidly...it should then be possible to obtain the substance in the form of a glass... It must therefore be possible to obtain all substances in the form of glass.\"1 Conceptual origin of the glass transition Tammann was closely acquainted with another noted scien- tist who wrote extensively about condensed matter: Walther Nernst.¹¹ Nernst was a Nobel Prize laureate in chemistry who developed the Nernst heat theorem in 1906, which became known as the third law of thermodynamics. Nernst published the 1893 textbook Theoretical Chemistry from the Standpoint of Avogadro\'s Rule & Thermodynamics. This edition makes little mention of glass and considers the idea that “amorphous solid substances are composed of crystal fragments too small for detection.\"¹² However, at some point 31 Credit: Sofia F. Mauro The untold history of the glass transition Tammann Lebedev Polymorphism and Annealing 1893 States of Aggregation 1911 of Glass Zachariasen 1927 Atomic Arrangement in Glass 1933 Kauzmann The Nature of the Glassy State and the Behavior of Liquids at Low Temperatures 1958 Nernst Theoretical 1903 Chemistry (1st ed.) Nernst Theoretical Chemistry (6th ed.) 1921 Parks, Huffman Studies on Glass 1932 Littleton Critical Temperatures in Silicate Glasses 1948 Gibbs, DiMarzio Nature of the Glass Transition and the Glassy State Credit: Sofia F. Mauro Figure 2. Timeline of sources discussing the glass transition phenomenon. between the publication of the first edition and the sixth edi- tion (translated to English in 1911), Nernst developed his own viewpoint on glasses, which he classifies as amorphous solids. In the sixth edition of Theoretical Chemistry from the Standpoint of Avogadro\'s Rule & Thermodynamics, Nernst describes a continuous transition from the unstable (non- equilibrium) amorphous state to the liquid state. He cites Tammann\'s The States of Aggregation in the development of the view of amorphous solids as distinct from crystalline solids; however, he deviates from Tammann\'s ideas related to the ori- gin of glass. Whereas Tammann considers the glass and super- cooled liquid states to be identical, Nernst understands that there is a glass transition connecting these two distinct states. Nernst writes that the rate of crystallization of a liquid diminishes with \"great undercooling\" and may \"go so far that [it] sinks practically to nothing, so that the undercooled liquid loses its capacity of crystallization and remains of a glassy char- acter, \"13 which is the definition of a glass. This statement can be considered the earliest accurate description of the glass tran- sition, even if the distinction between glasses and amorphous solids was not understood at that time. Despite the importance of the glass transition as the foun- dation of glass science, the conceptual development of this phenomenon was previously unknown. Ultimately, the glass transition originated with the same scientist who proposed the third law of thermodynamics: Walther Nernst. We argue that, although the focus of Nernst\'s research was not glass, he should be given credit as the first scientist to publish a conceptually accurate description of the glass transition and be appropriately recognized for this important contribution to materials science. Acknowledgments The authors thank J. Ballato, P.K. Gupta, S.W. Martin, A.K. Varshneya, and E.D. Zanotto for valuable conversations. J.C.M. acknowledges generous support from the Dorothy Pate Enright Professorship at The Pennsylvania State University. About the authors Sofia F. Mauro and John C. Mauro are undergraduate student and professor, respectively, at The Pennsylvania State University. Contact John Mauro at jcm426@psu.edu. 32 References \'Mauro, J. C. and Zanotto, E. D., “Two centuries of glass research: historical trends, current status, and grand challenges for the future,\" International Journal of Applied Glass Science 2014, 5(3), 313–327. 2Parks, G. S. and Huffman, H. M., “Studies on glass. I. The transi- tion between the glassy and liquid states in the case of some simple organic compounds,\" The Journal of Physical Chemistry 1927, 31(12), 1842-1855. ³Lebedev, A.A., “The polymorphism and annealing of glass,\" Transactions Opt. Inst. Petrograd 1921, 2(10), 1-20. 4Gibbs, J.H., and DiMarzio, E.A., “Nature of the glass transition and the glassy state,\" The Journal of Chemical Physics 1958, 28(3), 373–383. 5Zanotto, E.D. and Mauro, J.C., \"The glassy state of matter: Its defi- nition and ultimate fate,\" Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 2017, 471: 490-495. \'Mauro, J.C., Materials Kinetics: Transport and Rate Phenomena (1st edi- tion). Elsevier: 2021, pp. 295. \"Kauzmann, W.J., \"The nature of the glassy state and the behavior of liquids at low temperatures,” Chemical Reviews 1948, 43(2), 219-256. Littleton, J. T., “Critical temperatures in silicate glasses,\" Industrial & Engineering Chemistry 1933, 25(7), 748-755. Zachariasen, W.H., \"The atomic arrangement in glass,\" Journal of the American Chemical Society 1932, 54(10), 3841-3851. 1ºTammann, G., The States of Aggregation: The Changes in the State of Matter in Their Dependence upon Pressure and Temperature (R. F. Mehl, Translated). Constable: 1925, pp. 231-247. (Original work published 1903) 11\"Professor Gustav Tammann (to 140th birthday anniversary),\" Russian Journal of Applied Chemistry 2001, 74: 1610-1615. 12Nernst, W., Theoretical Chemistry from the Standpoint of Avogadro\'s Rule & Thermodynamics (C.S. Palmer, Translated). Macmillan: 1895, pp. 65-66. (Original work published 1893) 13Nernst, W., Theoretical Chemistry from the Standpoint of Avogadro\'s Rule & Thermodynamics (6th edition; H. T. Tizard, Translated). Macmillan: 1911, pp. 72-588. 2020 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 Jonathon Foreman ACers journals managing editor O journal highlights Toward more sustainable soda-lime glass Soda-lime silicate glass, more com- monly known as soda-lime glass, is the composition of choice in many glass applications, particularly for windows and containers. The raw materials are plentiful, and production methods are well known. Unfortunately, soda-lime glass has a large carbon footprint arising from both the energy required for high-temperature processing and the release of carbon dioxide from firing carbonate raw mate- rials. Reducing energy usage and adopt- ing alternative raw materials with lower embodied carbon are keys to improving the sustainability of soda-lime glass. Recent articles by Deng et al. explore the relationships among glass compo- sition, raw materials, and processing parameters to help drive future research toward improved sustainability. 1,2 One of their most interesting analyses in Reference 1 shows the contributions of various factors to the overall energy usage. The factors they considered in this analysis include carbonate raw mate- rials versus reuse of cullet and processing temperatures versus composition. It is commonly held that reducing the processing temperature will reduce the energy usage because the energy to heat glass to the melting temperature scales essentially linearly with that tem- perature. However, other contributions to the total theoretical processing energy include energy to decompose the carbon- ates into oxides, energy consumed by heating the released gases to the melt temperature, and reaction energy (for transformation from the individual oxides to the glass composition). Deng et al.\'s analysis in Reference 1 shows that reducing the processing tem- perature has a relatively small effect on the total theoretical energy. In contrast, using materials other than the carbon- ates has a much more substantial effect. Such raw materials include cullet, as explored by Somogyi et al.,³ and oxides from biomass ash, as explored by Dias et al.4 and Deng et al.5 Interestingly, Deng et al. found that washed particles of ash that are a minimum of 2 mm contain very low amounts of contaminants such as sulfur, chlorine, and carbon. Though Deng et al. showed that theoretical pro- cessing energy is relatively unaffected by processing tem- perature, the actual energy usage is highly influenced due to, among other things, thermal energy lost to the environment during the processing. They cite that reducing the melt temper- ature by 30°C can reduce heat lost from the furnace crown by 2.5%. Expanding on the variable of process- ing temperature, Deng et al.² and Kilinc et al.6 explore the relationships between composition, processing temperatures, processing speeds, and properties from both historical and phase perspectives. Briefly, processing temperatures should be sufficiently high to minimize recrys- tallization, the temperature of which is dependent on the composition. The amount of calcium oxide has a strong influence such that more calcium oxide leads to a higher liquidus temperature. Kilinc et al. conclude that the differences between commercial processing and liq- uidus temperatures, particularly for low- calcium glasses, can be reduced through reformulation. Unfortunately, from a sustainability perspective, recent changes to compositions of commercial glasses have been more focused on improving throughput and chemical durability and, for some glasses, raw materials cost than on reducing furnace temperature. In conclusion, multiple efforts are needed to improve sustainability of soda- lime glass production. Increasing recy- cling and use of alternative raw materials reduce both carbon dioxide output and energy consumption. Concurrent optimization of both composition and processing temperature aimed at reduc- ing thermal losses during processing are also needed. References ¹W. Deng et al., “A survey of commercial soda-lime-silica glass compositions: Trends and opportunities I-Compositions, proper- ties and theoretical energy requirements,\" IJAGS 2025, 16(1): e16691. 2W. Deng et al., “A survey of commercial soda-lime-silica glass compositions: Trends and opportunities II-Principal component analysis (PCA) of glass compositions,\" IJAGS 2025, 16(1): e16689. 3A. Somogyi and V. Chesnot, “Glass packaging and its contribution to the UN Sustainable Development Goals,” IJAGS 2024, 15(4): 342-349. 4T. S. S. Dias et al., “Glass-ceramic: Controlled crystallization of glasses obtained from biomass ash,\" IJCES 2023, 5(6): e10191. 5W. Deng et al., “Alternative raw material research for decarbonization of UK glass manufacture,\" IJAGS 2023, 14(3): 341-365. \"Kilinc et al., “Dynamic high-temperature crystallization and processing properties of industrial soda-lime-silica glasses,\" JACerS 2024, 107(4): 2242-2259.■ American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 33 33 Credit: Picryl ACers meeting highlights POTENTIAL AND PRACTICAL EFFECTS OF AI DRIVE DISCUSSION AT 60TH ANNUAL SYMPOSIUM ON REFRACTORIES Though relatively few in numbers, the 60th Annual Symposium on Refractories co-hosted by the ACerS Greater Missouri Section and Refractory Ceramics Division was truly a global event. Approximately 220 attendees from 15 countries gathered at the Hilton Airport Hotel in St. Louis from March 25-27, 2025, to discuss an increasingly impactful technol- ogy in industry: artificial intelligence. GROWING THE WORKFORCE THROUGH DIGITALIZATION Recruitment and retainment of personnel are two perennial challenges for manufacturers. Determin- ing why there is such high turnover with younger workers is a pressing question, and the sympo- sium\'s first speaker, Yakup Bayram of PaneraTech, Inc., had an answer. His company recently interviewed glass manufactur- ing executives and engineers from around the world to find out why workers leave the industry after only a few years. While the executives believed this behavior was due to the perception of glass manufacturing as a \"dirty, low-profile indus- try,\" the engineers explained it was the constant need to solve rather than prevent emergencies that caused discouragement. The PaneraTech report suggested that digitalization could help alleviate worker burnout in the glass and other heavy industries, such as steel and refractories, by supporting optimized operations and preventative maintenance. Of course, data on processes and equipment are only useful when people engage with the information. Bayram described some best practices for doing so, includ- ing the need for human oversight because no data collection setup is infallible. HARNESSING CONVENTIONAL AND AI- DRIVEN MODELS AND SIMULATIONS IN INDUSTRY Bayram\'s opening talk served as the perfect introduction to the rest of the presentations, which demonstrated the many ways that refractory, steel, and other manufacturers in related industries are making use of conventional and Al-driven models and simulations to improve their operations. Across all talks, the limitations as well as benefits of digitalization were discussed in depth. Many of 34 the featured techniques are emerging science, after all, and seeing how manufacturers such as RHI Magnesita, MINTEQ, and Almatis accounted for and adjusted to these restrictions in real time provided invaluable insights for other attendees considering using these techniques in their operations. CELEBRATING NEW AND PAST RCD AND GREATER MISSOURI SECTION AWARD WINNERS Two awards are traditionally given at the Refracto- ries Symposium: the Refractory Ceramics Division\'s biennial Alfred W. Allen Award, which recognizes the author(s) of the best technical paper on refrac- tory ceramics published in the last two years, and the Greater Missouri Section\'s Theodore J. Planje Refractories Award, which recognizes individuals who show excellence in the field of refractories. This year\'s Allen Award recipients were Somnath Mandal and Manoj Mahapatra of the University Current Refractory Ceramics Division Vice Chair John Waters, left, presents RCD Chair Austin Scheer with the outgoing chair certifi- cate to recognize his leadership. Dilip Jain gives Kent Weisenstein (red jacket) a hug during the session recogniz- ing past Theodore J. Planje Refractories Award recipients. Weisenstein gave a speech reflecting on his years in the refrac- tories industry and as an ACerS member. The American eramic Society All photos credit: ACerS RefractoryCeramicsDivision of Alabama at Birmingham and James G. Hemrick of Oak Ridge National Laboratory for their 2023 paper \"Impact on aggregate/matrix bonding when a refractory contains zinc aluminate instead of spinel and magnesia-chrome.\" Regarding the Planje Award, instead of a new recipient, the Greater Missouri Section decided to recognize all past Planje recipients in honor of it being the 60th Annual Symposium. See more photos from the 60th Annual Symposium on Refractories on the ACerS Flickr page at https://bit.ly/Refractories-Symposium-2025. The 61st Annual Symposium on Refractories will take place in March 2026.■ Ruth Engle, left, presented this year\'s Allen Award to Somnath Mandal, James Hemrick, and Manoj Mahapatra. Mandal presented the award lecture, and he said winning this award was his \"dream\" because his work has now achieved the same level of recognition as some of his mentors. Past Theodore J. Planje Refractories Award recipients, from left: Andus Buhr, Dilip Jain, David Tucker, Ruth Engel, James Hemrick, Jeffrey Smith, Nancy Bunt, and Kent Weisenstein. Everyone shared their mem- ories of Weisenstein and what it means to be a Planje recipient. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 The American Ceramic Society ceramics.org UPCOMING DATES SEPT. 28-OCT. 1, 2025 Save the date! JAN. 25-30, 2026 Save the date! ACERS 127TH ANNUAL MEETING WITH MS&T25 MATERIALS SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY AIST TMS American ASSOCIATION FOR IRON & STEEL TECHNOLOGY The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society 50TH The American Ceramic Society ceramics.org GOLDEN JUBILEE CELEBRATION OF THE 50TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE AND EXPO ON ADVANCED CERAMICS AND COMPOSITES (ICACC 2026) Organized by: The Engineering Ceramics Division of The American Ceramic Society matscitech.org/mst25 GREATER COLUMBUS CONVENTION CENTER, COLUMBUS, OHIO Join us in Columbus for the annual Materials Science & Technology tech- nical meeting and exhibition series. MS&T is a long-standing, recognized forum for fostering technical innovation at the intersection of materials science, engineering, and application. ceramics.org/icacc2026 HILTON DAYTONA BEACH OCEANFRONT RESORT, DAYTONA BEACH, FLA. Join us in Daytona Beach for the Golden Jubilee Celebration of the 50th International Conference and Expo on Advanced Ceramics and Composites (ICACC 2026). The American Ceramic Society ceramics.org APRIL 12-16, 2026 Save the date! MAY 31-JUNE 5, 2026 Save the date! ACERS SPRING MEETING International Conference on HIGH TEMPERATURE CERAMIC MATRIX COMPOSITES (HTCMC 12) COMBINED WITH Global Forum on ADVANCED MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (GFMAT 2026) 2026 ceramics.org/ACERSSPRING HYATT REGENCY BELLEVUE ON SEATTLE\'S EASTSIDE BELLEVUE, WASH., USA Six ACers Divisions are collaborating to host the first-ever ACerS Spring Meeting in Bellevue, Wash. Each of the six Divisions will create its own programming, though collaborative sessions will take place as well. One registration fee will allow you access to all programming and events. ceramics.org/htcmc12_gfmat2026 SHERATON SAN DIEGO HOTEL & MARINA, SAN DIEGO, CALIF., USA Join us in San Diego for the combined 12th International Con- ference on High Temperature Ceramic Matrix Composites and 3rd Global Forum on Advanced Materials and Technologies for Sustainable Development. American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 | www.ceramics.org 35 55 calendar Calendar of events April 2025 15-June 20 Properties of Refractories - Virtual; https://ceramics. org/course/homeny-properties-of- refractories May 2025 4-9 16th Pacific Rim Conference on Ceramic and Glass Technology and the Glass & Optical Materials Division Meeting - Hyatt Regency Vancouver, Vancouver, Canada; https://ceramics. org/pacrim16 20-22 A Technician\'s Guide to Ceramics - Virtual; https://ceramics. org/course/carty-technician-guide- ceramics June 2025 9-11 ACers Structural Clay Products Division & Southwest Section Meeting in conjunction with the National Brick Research Center Meeting - Birmingham, Ala.; https://ceramics.org/clay2025 11-13 15th Advances in Cement-Based Materials Boulder, Colo.; https://ceramics.org/cements2025 11-27 Foundations of Ceramic Processing - Virtual; https://ceramics. org/course/carty-ceramic-processing July 2025 8-11 ➡The 8th International Conference on the Characterization and Control of Interfaces for High Quality Advanced Materials - Highland Resort Hotel & Spa, Fujiyoshida, Japan; https://ceramics.ynu. ac.jp/iccci2025/index.html 16-18 Properties and Testing of Refractories - Westerville, Ohio; https://ceramics.org/course/homeny- properties-and-testing-refractories September 2025 16-Dec. 4☆ Refractory Manufacturing - Virtual; https://ceramics.org/course/ homeny-refractory-manufacturing 17-18 Tools for Visualizing and Understanding the Structure of Crystalline Ceramics - Virtual; https://ceramics.org/course/sparks- crystalline-ceramics 28-Oct. 1 ACers 127th Annual Meeting with Materials Science and Technology 2025 Greater Columbus Convention Center, Columbus, Ohio; https://www.matscitech.org/MST25 October 2025 5-9 International Symposium on Green Processing of Advanced Ceramics (IGPAC 2025] - Ise-Shima/Mie, Japan; https://igpac2025.com 27-30 Unified International Technical Conference on Refractories - JW Marriott Cancún Resort & Spa, Cancún, Mexico; https://unitecr2025.com January 2026 25-30 Golden Jubilee Celebration of the 50th International Conference and Expo on Advanced Ceramics and Composites (ICACC 2026) - Hilton Daytona Beach Oceanfront Resort, Daytona, Fla.; https://ceramics.org/icacc2026 March 2026 24-26 ceramitec 2026 - Trade Fair Center Messe, München, Germany; https://ceramics.org/event/ ceramitec-2026 April 2026 12-16 ACers Spring Meeting - Bellevue, Wash.; http://ceramics.org/acersspring May 2026 31-June 5 12th International Conference on High Temperature Ceramic Matrix Composites (HTCMC 12) and Global Forum on Advanced Materials and Technologies for Sustainable Development (GFMAT 2026) - Sheraton San Diego Hotel & Marina, San Diego, Calif.; https://ceramics.org/htcmc12_ gfmat2026 June 2026 7-12 ➡ Solid State Studies in Ceramic Science Gordon Research Conference - South Hadley, Mass.; https://www.grc. org/solid-state-studies-in-ceramics- conference/2026 15-25 CIMTEC 2026 - Perugia, Italy; https://ceramics.org/event/ cimtec-2026 August 2026 31-Sept. 1 The International Conference on Sintering - Aachen, Germany; https://www.sintering2026.org/en Dates in RED denote new event in this issue. Entries in BLUE denote ACerS events. denotes meetings that ACerS cosponsors, endorses, or other- wise cooperates in organizing. denotes a short course 36 www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 classified advertising Career Opportunities QUALITY EXECUTIVE SEARCH, INC. 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A promising alternative to SLS glass is LionGlass™, a novel phosphate-based Figure 1. LionGlass contaminated with soda-lime silicate glass being poured into a mold. glass family developed by researchers at The Pennsylvania State University. LionGlass eliminates the need for carbonate batch materials and has a significantly lower melting temperature, reducing carbon emissions from manufacturing by 50-60%.³ Plus, LionGlass exhibits remarkable mechanical properties, including enhanced crack resistance and chemical durability.4 Given these advantages, LionGlass has the potential to revolutionize the glass industry by providing a sustainable alter- native for various applications, including glass packaging and architectural glazing. However, transitioning from SLS glass to LionGlass is not a straightforward process. The glass industry is built around well-established manufacturing and waste dis- posal processes, and companies cannot overhaul their produc- tion lines to accommodate the new composition overnight. Glass recycling is a major factor in transitioning LionGlass to market. In theory, glass is indefinitely recyclable without los- ing its properties. But in practice, not all glass compositions are recyclable on an industrial scale. Borosilicate glasses and glass- ceramics, for example, are not recycled as extensively as SLS glass due to their lower production volumes, higher melting temperatures, and longer lifespan in consumer use. As a result, most recycling facilities are optimized specifically for SLS glass, with furnaces designed to melt its composition efficiently. Because LionGlass is not yet mass-produced, it is not eco- nomically feasible to establish separate recycling streams just for this glass. But then how will LionGlass be sorted from SLS glass at recycling facilities to prevent contamination? Research indicates that LionGlass can be optically sorted from SLS glass based on differences in their ultraviolet absor- bance spectra, ensuring that it does not interfere with existing recycling streams. But even with efficient sorting, some degree of cross-contamination between LionGlass and SLS glass is 40 40 Credit: Mehmet Arda Özay, The Pennsylvania State University inevitable, whether at recycling facilities or within manufacturers\' own production lines. This mixing of LionGlass and SLS glass raises an important question: What hap- pens when LionGlass cullet contaminates SLS cullet, and vice versa? If even small amounts of LionGlass alter the proper- ties of SLS glass beyond acceptable limits, manufacturers may be reluctant to adopt it. Similarly, understanding how SLS cullet affects LionGlass properties is crucial for ensuring product consistency. Addressing these concerns is a key focus of my research at The Pennsylvania State University (Figure 1). In addition to determining acceptable contamination thresholds and their impact on final glass properties, I am also working to develop an SLS-compatible version of LionGlass. By designing a composi- tion that minimizes the effects of cross-contamination, manu- facturers can integrate LionGlass into existing production lines with fewer risks-thus encouraging industry adoption. LionGlass represents a major step toward a more sustainable glass industry, offering significant environmental benefits while maintaining the performance required for commercial applica- tions. By addressing challenges related to sorting, contamina- tion, and compatibility, we can pave the way for a future where LionGlass coexists with and eventually replaces traditional SLS glass, fostering a more sustainable and efficient glass industry. References ¹W. Deng, E. Wakelin, E. Kilinc, and P. A. Bingham, \"A survey of commercial soda-lime-silica glass compositions: Trends and oppor- tunities I-Compositions, properties and theoretical energy require- ments,\" Int. J. Appl. Glass Sci. 2025, 16(1): e16691. 2“The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2024 | DESA Publications,\" United Nations. Published June 2024. Accessed 23 Feb. 2025. https://desapublications.un.org/publications/sustainable- development-goals-report-2024 3S. Astle and S. Traugh, \"LionGlass: A phosphate-based approach to carbon-neutral glass manufacturing,” Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull. 2023, 102(4): 40. 4J. Chen, “A carbon-neutral future with Penn State\'s pride, LionGlass,\" Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull. 2024, 103(4): 40. Elif Pınar Akman Özay is a Ph.D. student in materials science and engineering at The Pennsylvania State University. Her research focuses on the recycling and cullet compatibility of LionGlass. In her free time, Elif enjoys journaling, cooking, practicing yoga, and trying different flavors of ice cream. www.ceramics.org | American Ceramic Society Bulletin, Vol. 104, No. 4 NEW COLLEGE YORK STATE CERAMICS ALFRED 125 EARS VERSITY CARBOLITE Bulwark WELCOMING NEW FACULTY Caio Bragatto, Ph.D. Alfred University welcomes Assistant Professor of Ceramic Engineering Dr. Caio Bragatto. Bragatto earned his B.S. degree in Industrial Chemistry from the Universidade de São Paulo (São Paulo, Brazil), and his master\'s and Ph.D. degrees in Materials Science and Engineering from the Universidade Federal de São Carlos (São Paulo, Brazil). Bragatto worked as a research assistant at the Otto-Schott Institut für Materialwissenschaft at the University of Jena (Thüringen, Germany) and as a physics professor at Coe College (Cedar Rapids, Iowa). He specializes in the ionic conductivity of glasses, like those used for batteries and sensors focusing especially on unveiling the mechanisms behind the phe- nomena and working on a universal model to predict this property. During his time at Coe College, he was the principal investigator (PI) for an NSF-MRI (National Science Foundation Major Research Instrument) grant for an electrochemical impedance spectrometer, co-PI for another NSF-MRI for a differential scanning calorimeter as well for the institution\'s NSF- RUI (Research at predominantly Undergraduate Institutions). This research was done in di- rect collaboration with the undergraduates at Coe College, which led to two of his students being awarded runner-up prizes for the Glass and Optical Materials Cooper Awards (\'19 & ‘22). Dr. Bragatto has also been deeply involved with student life, advising multiple clubs, includ- ing the chapter for the Society of Physics Students. His involvement led to his election as a congressman in the national society, a role he will keep for another two years. He is also involved with ACerS, and is a member of multiple committees, chairing sessions during conferences. He is excited to bring this experience to Alfred University. 1836 Alfred University OUTSIDE of ORDINARY CACT Center for Advanced Ceramic Technology 田 AMERICAN ELEMENTS THE MATERIALS SCIENCE MANUFACTURERⓇ palladium catalysts thin film nickel foam perovskite crystals glassy carbon III-IV semiconductors europium phosphors diamond micropowder buckyballs Nd:YAG alternative energy additive manufacturing MOFS 1.00794 Hydrogen nanogels Li 11 6.941 Lithium 12 99.9999% aluminum oxide organometallics Be surface functionalized nanoparticles 9.012182 Beryllium YBCO Na Mg nanodispersions MOCVD AuNPs EuFOD 19 22.98976928 Sodium Magnesium K 39.0983 Potassium Rb Rubidium 38 56 Ca 40.078 Calcium Sr 87.62 Strontium Cs Ba 132.9054 Cesium Fr 88 Barium Ra 21 39 57 89 Sc Ti 44.955912 Scandium 88.90585 Yttrium La 138.90547 Lanthanum Ac 72 104 Titanium Zr 91.224 Zirconium Hf 178.48 Hafnium Rf 23 41 73 105 V 50.9415 Vanadium Nb 92.90638 Niobium Ta Tantalum Db 42 74 3D graphene foam 13 31 B 10.811 Boron 0 12.0107 Carbon ΑΙ 26.9815386 Aluminum 14 Si 28.0855 Silicon 15 Ga 33 metamaterials borophene He osmium N 14.0067 Nitrogen 0 Oxygen S P 30.973762 Phosphorus Ge As Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn 65.38 69.723 55.845 Iron 58.933195 Cobalt 58.6934 Nickel Gallium 72.64 Germanium Chromium Mo 95.96 Molybdenum W 183.84 Tungsten 43 75 107 54.938045 Manganese Tc Technetium Re 186.207 Rhenium Sg Bh 44 108 Ru 101.07 Ruthenium Os 190.23 Osmium Hs 45 77 109 Rh 102.9055 Rhodium Ir 192.217 Iridium Mt (223) (227) (268) (272) (270) Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium 78 110 Pd 106.42 Palladium Pt 195.084 Platinum 2 111 63.540 Copper 48 Cd In Sn Ag Cd 107.8682 112.411 Cadmium Au Hg 81 196.966569 Gold 200.59 Mercury 113 114.818 Indium TI Thallium Ds Rg Cn Nh (281) Darmstadtium Roentgenium (285) Copernicium (284) Nihonium 114 Tin Pb 207.2 Lead FI (289) Flerovium 51 83 115 74.9216 Arsenic Sb 121.76 Antimony Bi 208.9804 Bismuth 34 116 Se Selenium Te 127.6 Tellurium Po Polonium Mc Lv (288) Moscovium (293) Livermorium 17 35 53 117 18.9984032 Fluorine CI 35.453 Chlorine Br 79.904 Bromine 126.90447 lodine At (210) Astatine Ts (294) Tennessine 118 4.002602 Helium Ne h-BN Neon Ar Invar 39.948 Argon Kr 83.798 Krypton Xe 131.293 Xenon Rn (222) Radon Og (294) Oganesson InAs wafers titanium aluminum carbide molybdenum TZM silver nanoparticles niobium C103 Ce Pr 140.116 Cerium 140.90765 Praseodymium Pa Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er 144.242 (145) Neodymium Promethium 150.36 Samarium 151.964 Europium 157.25 Gadolinium 158.92535 Terbium 162.5 Dysprosium Holmium Erbium 95 Np Pu Am Cm Bk 99 101 Tm Yb 168.93421 Thulium 102 173.054 Ytterbium Es Fm Md No 103 Lu Lutetium GDC NMC CIGS ITO zircaloy -4 Lr mischmetal 90 91 quantum dots Th U Cf 232.03806 Thorium 231.03588 Protactinium 238.02891 Uranium (237) Neptunium (244) Plutonium (243) Americium (247) Curium (247) Berkelium (251) Californium (252) Einsteinium (257) Fermium (258) Mendelevium (259) Nobelium Lawrencium transparent ceramics UHP fluorides scandium powder radiation shielding rare earth optical fiber dopants biosynthetics sputtering targets endohedral fullerenes Now Invent. (262) chalcogenides carbon nanotubes TM CVD precursors deposition slugs gold nanocubes OLED lighting laser crystals flexible electronics platinum ink tungsten carbide The Next Generation of Ceramic Materials Manufacturers superconductors tantaloy 60 InGaAs Bulk & lab scale manufacturers of over 35,000 certified high purity chemicals, metals, and nanoparticles, including ceramic compounds and precursors for our advanced ceramic manufacturing customers serving industries such as aerospace, automotive, military, pharmaceutical, and electronics. graphene oxide ultra high purity materials metallic glass pyrolitic graphite Ti-6Al-4V photovoltaics AMERICAN zeolites American Elements Opens a World of Possibilities..... Now Invent! ELEMENTS 28 th ANNIVERSARY 1997 - 2025 metals www.americanelements.com silica 99.99999% mercury metallocenes SOFC powder li-ion battery materials © 2001-2025. American Elements is a U.S.Registered Trademark